诺贝尔奖

来自 吴语维基百科

诺贝尔奖是根据阿勒夫咸德 诺贝尔（Alfred Nobel）个意思设立个奖项，拨拉勒科学研究方面作出特出贡献个人搭组织，渠个领域包括物理、化学、文学、和平、医学咾啥，搿星奖项是世界浪顶顶高级个奖项。

一径到2005年11月份，亨白浪当有776个诺贝尔奖授拨758个个人搭仔18个组织。但有星人拒绝接受。勒到两战个辰光，1940到1942年间奖牌朆发得出去。有规定，每一种奖项勒拉5年当中板定要发出去一趟。

内容 1 奖项种类 1.1 Nobel Memorial Prizes 2 颁奖典礼 3 诺贝尔个意愿 4 提名搭筛选过程 4.1 No posthumous nominations 5 批评 5.1 弗能认同类似个成就 5.2 呒得数学奖 6 杂集 7 其他奖项 8 请查看 9 参考 10 外部链接

[编辑] 奖项种类

Medal	Category	Characteristics
Image:Nobel in Physics and Chemistry.jpg	Nobel Prize in Physics	Awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to "the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention within the field of physics".
Image:Nobel in Physics and Chemistry.jpg	Nobel Prize in Chemistry	Awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to "the person who shall have made the most important chemical discovery or improvement".
Image:Nobel in Medicine.jpg	Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine	Awarded by the Karolinska Institutet to "the person who shall have made the most important discovery within the domain of physiology or medicine".
	Nobel Prize in Literature	Awarded by the Swedish Academy to "the person who shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work of an idealistic tendency".
Image:Nobel in Peace.jpg	Nobel Prize in Peace	Awarded by the Norwegian Nobel Committee to "the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity among nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses".

[编辑] Nobel Memorial Prizes

Medal	Category	Characteristics
Image:Nobel in Economics.jpg	Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics	Also known as the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, it was instituted in 1969 by Sveriges Riksbank (the Bank of Sweden). Although it is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences at the same time as the Nobel Prizes – leading many people and commentators to label it a "Nobel Prize" – technically it is not a Nobel Prize as it was not willed by Alfred Nobel nor funded by his bequest.

[编辑] 颁奖典礼

The committees and institutions that serve as selection boards for the Prizes typically announce the names of the laureates in October. The Prizes are then awarded at formal ceremonies held annually on December 10, the anniversary of Alfred Nobel's death.

The Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905-1946); the Aula of the University of Oslo (1947-1990); and most recently at the Oslo City Hall. As of 2005, the other Prize ceremonies have been held at the Stockholm Concert Hall.

Each award can be given to a maximum of three recipients per year. They each consist of a gold medal; a diploma; the extension of Swedish citizenship; and a sum of money. Currently the latter is about ten million Swedish Kronor (slightly more than one million Euros or about 1.3 million US dollars). Originally this money was meant to fund laureates' further work, although nowadays many laureates are retired at the time their award is made.

If there are two winners in one category, the award money is split equally between them. If there are three winners, the awarding committee has the option of splitting the prize money equally among all three, or awarding half of the prize money to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the other two. It is common for the recipients to donate the prize money to benefit scientific, cultural or humanitarian causes.

Since 1902, the King of Sweden has, with the exception of the Peace Prize, presented all the prizes in Stockholm. At first King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners, but is said to have changed his mind once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden.

Until the Norwegian Nobel Committee was established in 1904, the President of Norwegian Parliament made the formal presentation of the Nobel Peace Prize. The Committee's five members are entrusted with researching and adjudicating the Prize as well as awarding it. Although appointed by the Norwegian Parliament (the Stortinget), they are independent and answer to no legislative authority. Members of the Norwegian government are not permitted to sit on the Committee.

[编辑] 诺贝尔个意愿

The Prizes were instituted by the final will of Alfred Nobel, a Swedish chemist, industrialist, and the inventor of dynamite. Alfred Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. The last one was written on November 27, 1895—a little over a year before he died. He signed it at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on November 27, 1895. Nobel's work had directly involved the creation of explosives, and he became increasingly uneasy with the military usage of his inventions. It is said that this was motivated in part by his reading of a premature obituary of himself, published in error by a French newspaper on the occasion of the death of Nobel's brother Ludvig, and which condemned Alfred as a "merchant of death." So in his will, Alfred left 94% of his worth to the establishment of five prizes: Template:Quotation Although Nobel's will established the prizes, his plan was incomplete and, due to various other hurdles, it was five years before the Nobel Foundation could be established and the first prizes awarded on December 10, 1901^[1].

[编辑] 提名搭筛选过程

As compared with some other prizes, the Prize nomination and selection process is long and rigorous. This is an important reason why the Prizes have grown in importance and prestige over the years to become the most important prizes in their field.

Forms, which amount to a personal and exclusive invitation, are sent to about three thousand selected individuals to invite them to submit nominations. In the case of the Peace Prize, for example, the people may be asked to make nominations:

• Members of national assemblies and governments of states;
• Members of international courts;
• University rectors;
• Professors of social sciences, history, philosophy, law and theology;
• Directors of peace research institutes and foreign policy institutes;
• Peace Prize laureates and/or board members of organisations that have been awarded the Peace Prize;
• Active and former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee;
• Former advisers appointed by the Norwegian Nobel Institute.

Similar requirements are in place for the other Prizes.

The submission deadline for nominations, which is strictly enforced, is January 31 of the year in which the award is to be made^[2]. Self-nominations are automatically disqualified and, as mentioned above, only living persons are eligible.

Unlike many other awards, the names of those nominated for a Nobel Prize are never publicly announced and they are never meant to learn that they were considered for the Prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years.

After the nomination deadline, a committee screens and filters the nominations to produce a list of around two hundred preliminary candidates. This list is then sent to selected experts in each nominee's field of work, from whose responses a shortlist of around fifteen is made. The committee then writes a report with recommendations and sends it to the relevant institution. As an example of these institution's sizes, the Assembly for the Prize for Medicine has fifty members. The members of the institution meet and select a winner or winners by vote.

The process varies slightly between the different disciplines. For instance, the Literature Prize is rarely awarded to more than one person per year, whereas other Prizes now often involve two or three collaborators.

[编辑] No posthumous nominations

Posthumous nominations for Prizes are not allowed. This has sometimes sparked criticism that people deserving of a Nobel Prize did not receive the award because they died before being nominated. In two cases the Prize has been awarded posthumously to people who died in the months between their nomination and selection as a winner: UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld (1961, Peace) and Erik Axel Karlfeldt (1931, Literature).

Since 1974, awards have not been allowed for a deceased person. William Vickrey (1996, Economics) died before he could receive the prize, but after it was announced.

[编辑] 批评

The Prize has been criticized over the years, with people suggesting that formal agreements and name recognition are more important than actual achievements in the process of deciding who is awarded the Prize. Perhaps the most infamous case of this was in 1973 when Henry Kissinger and Le Duc Tho shared the Peace Prize for bringing peace to Vietnam, even though the War in Vietnam was ongoing at the time. Le Duc Tho declined the award, for the stated reason that peace had not been achieved.

[编辑] 弗能认同类似个成就

Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize five times between 1937 and 1948 but never won it. Research indicates that it was likely the Authority would have given him the Prize in 1948, the year in which he was assassinated. The committee apparently considered a posthumous award^{[来源请求]} but ultimately decided against it, instead choosing not to award the Nobel Peace Prize to anybody for that year.

The strict rules against a Prize being awarded to more than three people at once is also a cause for controversy. Where a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, inevitably one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, a Prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that failed to recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt^[3].

Similarly, the rule against posthumous prizes often fails to recognise important achievements by a collaborator who happens to have died before the prize is awarded. Rosalind Franklin, for example, made some of the key steps toward the discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953, but died of ovarian cancer in 1958, four years before Francis Crick, James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins (one of Franklin's collaborators) were awarded the Prize for Medicine or Physiology in 1962.^[4].

Criticism was levied towards the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physics, specifically for the recognition of Roy Glauber and not George Sudarshan. While citation counts indicate that Glauber's 1963 papers are more widely referenced, it is clear that both made important contributions to the fields of quantum optics and coherence theory. Here again, the untimely death of two other seminal contributors, Len Mandel and Dan Walls, removed them from consideration.

Similarly, the 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "the discovery and development of conductive organic polymers" ignored the earlier discovery of equally highly-conductive charge transfer complex polymers, Weiss et als 1963 report of high conductivity in iodine-doped oxidized polypyrrole [1], and the prior report [2] of a working organic electronic device with a high-conductivity "ON" state. Also see Conductive polymers.

[编辑] 呒得数学奖

There are several possible reasons why Nobel created no Prize for mathematics. Nobel's will speaks of prizes for those inventions or discoveries of greatest practical benefit to mankind, possibly having in mind practical rather than theoretical works. Mathematics was not considered a practical science from which humanity could benefit, a key purpose for the Nobel Foundation^[5].

One other possible reason was that there was already a well known Scandinavian prize for mathematicians. The existing mathematical awards at the time were mainly due to the work of Gösta Mittag-Leffler, who founded the Acta Mathematica, a century later still one of the world's leading mathematical journals. Through his influence in Stockholm he persuaded King Oscar II to endow prize competitions and honor distinguished mathematicians all over Europe, including Hermite, Bertrand, Weierstrass, and Poincaré.

The oft-repeated myth that Nobel refused to endow a mathematics prize because his wife had an affair with the mathematician Mittag-Leffler is patently untrue, as Nobel never married^[6].

In 2001, the Norwegian government began awarding the Abel Prize with the specific intention of it serving as a substitute for a missing Nobel Prize in Mathematics. Also, beginning in 2004, the Nobel-like Shaw Prize included an award in mathematical sciences. The Fields Medal is often described as the "Nobel Prize of mathematics", but the comparison is uneven as it is only awarded to people no more than forty years old. A closer comparison may be made with the Crafoord Prize, which, like the Nobel Prizes, is awarded by the Swedish Royal Academy.

[编辑] 杂集

In the history of the Nobel Prize, there have been only four people to have received two Nobel Prizes. These are:

Marie Skłodowska-Curie

Physics [1903]: Discovery of Radioactivity

Chemistry [1911]: Isolation of Pure Radium

Linus Pauling

Chemistry [1954]: Hybridized Orbital Theory

Peace [1962]: Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty Activism

John Bardeen

Physics [1956]: Invention of Transistor

Physics [1972]: Theory of Superconductivity

Frederick Sanger

Chemistry [1958]: Structure of the Insulin Molecule

Chemistry [1980]: Virus Nucleotide Sequencing

Additionally, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1917, 1944, and 1963. The first two prizes were specifically in recognition of the group's work during the world wars.

The only siblings to win Nobel Prizes are Jan Tinbergen (Economics, 1969) and his younger brother Niko Tinbergen (Medicine, 1973).

Only one person has the distinction of being an Oscar winner and a Nobel Laureate. The Irishman, George Bernard Shaw winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1925 won an Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay in 1938.

[编辑] 其他奖项

There are several other well known international prizes and awards in various fields of endeavour, including fields without a Nobel prize, most of which are not as well-known. The best known include the Fields Medal, the Turing Award, the Templeton Prize, and the Wolf Prize. The Templeton Prize is the largest financial annual prize award given to a single person for intellectual merit, worth 795,000 pounds sterling or 1.4 million US dollars in 2006.

Prize	Subject/s	Characteristics
Abel Prize	Mathematics	Instituted in 2002 to mark the bicentennial of Niels Henrik Abel's birth; prize of 6 million Norwegian kroner awarded annually for "outstanding scientific work in the field of mathematics".
Astrid Lindgren Memorial Award	Children's literature	Instituted in 2002 in honour of the Swedish children's books author Astrid Lindgren. The prize is awarded annually to an amount of five million SEK.
Fields Medal	Mathematics	Awarded to two, three or four mathematicians not over forty years of age at each International Congress of the International Mathematical Union.
Goldman Environmental Prize	Environmental protection	The most lucrative environmental award in the world, it is given annually to grassroots environmental activists from six geographic areas: Africa, Asia, Europe, Islands and Island Nations, North America, and South and Central America.
Ig Nobel Prize	Physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, peace	Organized by the scientific humor journal Annals of Improbable Research (AIR), it is a parody of the Nobel Prize given annually for ten achievements that "first make people laugh, and then make them think".
MacArthur Fellowship	Any	Given by the MacArthur Foundation each year to around twenty to forty citizens or residents of the United States, of any age and working in any field, who "show exceptional merit and promise for continued and enhanced creative work".
Kyoto Prize	Arts and philosophy, advanced technology, basic sciences	Awarded annually since 1984 by the Inamori Foundation, a non-profit organization founded by Japanese businessman Kazuo Inamori.
Right Livelihood Award	Environmental protection, human rights, health, education	Established in 1980 by Jakob von Uexkull, the Award is presented annually in Swedish Parliament building to honour those "working on practical and exemplary solutions to the most urgent challenges facing the world today".
Schock Prize	Logic and philosophy, mathematics, visual arts, music	Instituted by the will of philosopher and artist Rolf Schock. The prizes were first awarded in Stockholm, Sweden in 1993 and have been awarded every two years since. Each recipient currently receives 400,000 SEK.
Templeton Prize	Religion	Awarded annually by the Templeton Foundation to a living person who, in the estimation of the judges, best exemplifies "trying various ways for discoveries and breakthroughs to expand human perceptions of divinity and to help in the acceleration of divine creativity," ...including research in love, creativity, purpose, infinity, intelligence, thanksgiving and prayer..
Turing Award	Computer science	Given to an individual selected for contributions of a technical nature made to the computing community.
Wolf Prize	Agriculture, arts, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, physics	Awarded annually since 1978 to living scientists and artists for "achievements in the interest of mankind and friendly relations among peoples... irrespective of nationality, race, colour, religion, sex or political views".

[编辑] 请查看

• Nobel Peace Center
• List of prizes, medals, and awards
• List of Nobel laureates
  • Nobel Prize laureates by country
  • Nobel Prize laureates by university affiliation
  • Female Nobel Prize laureates
  • List of Jewish Nobel Prize winners
  • List of Muslim Nobel Prize winners
  • List of Hindu Nobel Prize winners
• Nobel Prize in Physics
• Nobel Prize in Chemistry
• Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
• Nobel Prize in Literature
• Nobel Peace Prize
• Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel
• Lenin Peace Prize
• Nobel Prize controversies
• Millennium Technology Prize

[编辑] 参考

[编辑] 外部链接

• Nobelprize.org — Official site
• The Nobel Prize Internet Archive
• Why is there no Nobel in computer science?
• Why is there no Nobel in mathematics?
• The Nobel Committees of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
• The Nobel Committee of the Karolinska Institute
• The Swedish Academy
• The Norwegian Nobel Committee
• Britannica Spotlight: Guide to the Nobel Prizes
• CNN: Nobel Centennial