तिब्बत

नेपाली विकिपीडियाबाट

Template:ऐतिहासिक /सांस्कृतिक तिब्बत Template:Infobox Country अथवा territory

तिब्बत (पुरानो उच्चारण थिबत; Template:Bo; सरलीकृत र परम्परागत चिनीयाँ: 西藏, ह्यान्यू पिनयिन: Xīzàng;藏区का रूपमा समेत (सरलीकृत चिनीयाँ), 藏區 (परम्परागत चिनीयाँ), ज्याङ्कू (ह्यान्यू पिनयिन), हेर्नुस् नाम खण्ड) क्षेत्रहरू मध्य एशिया को उच्च समस्थली हो। र तिब्बतीय जनताको indigenous घर। जसको सरदर ढाल ४,९०० मीटर (१६,००० ft), संसारकै उच्च क्षेत्रहरूमा पर्दछ र यो "विश्वको छहारी (Roof of the World)" नामले प्रसिद्ध छ।

शताब्दियौं सम्म अलग्गै राष्ट्र को रूपमा रहेको तिब्बत आज जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन अन्तरगत पर्दछ। तिब्बत चिनीयाँ गणतन्त्र भएको दावी छ। यद्यपि तिब्बतीय सार्वभौमिकता विवाद, मा जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन सरकार र निर्वासनमा रहेको तिब्बत सरकार बीच विवाद कायमै छ। निर्वासनमा रहेको तिब्बत सरकार अन्तर्राष्ट्रिय कानून बमोजिम तिब्बत चीनको प्रान्त भएको स्वीकार्दैन। तिब्बतीय साम्राज्य सातौं शताब्दी तिर अस्तित्वमा आएको हो जब सम्राट स्रङचङ गम्पो ले विभिन्न क्षेत्र र जातजातिहरूलाई एकीकृत पारे। सन् १६०० को शुरू देखि नै टुल्कुका (अवतारी लामाहरू), जो दलाइ लामा भनेर चिनिन्छन् हरूले तिब्बतमा शासन गरिआएका थिए। तिब्बत र १४ दलाइ लामाहरू eminations of अवलोकितेश्वर भएको विश्वास गरिन्छ। ("चेनरेजिग" तिब्बतीमा [स्प्यान राज ग्जिग्ज]), compassionको बोधिसत्व मानिन्छ।

सत्रौं शताब्दी र १९५९ बीचमा , दलाइ लामा र उनका अनुचरहरू तिब्बतका मुख्य राजनीतिक शक्ति थिए। उनीहरू अधिकांश आफ्नो धार्मिक र प्रशासकीय शासन परम्परागत राजधानी ह्लासा, बाटै चलाउँथे जुन तिब्बतको सबैभन्दा पवित्र शहर मानिन्छ। चिनीयाँ सूत्र, जियावेई, वाङ्, "चिनियाँ तिब्बतको ऐतिहासिक स्थिति", २०००, pp८९-९२ का अनुसार सत्रौं शताब्दी देखि १७२१ सम्म, तिब्बतका राजनीतिक नेता देग्सी अथवा गभर्नर हुन्थे।  १७२१मा, चिनीयाँ सम्राटले देग्सीको पद अन्त्य गरे र राजनीतिक शक्ति चार गालोनहरूको हातमा दिए। १७५१मा, चिनीयाँ सम्राट ले दलाइ लामालाई तिब्बतको आत्मिक र राजनीतिक नेताको स्थान दिए जसमा सरकार (गाजाङ) लगायत यसमा ४ गालोनहरू  हुन्थे।

विषयसूची १ परिचय २ नाम २.१ तिब्बतीय २.२ चिनीयाँमा २.३ In अङ्‌रेजी ३ भाषा ४ इतिहास ४.१ Pre इतिहास ४.२ The तिब्बतीय साम्राज्य ४.३ मंगोल र मञ्चु ४.४ दलाइ लामा अवतार ४.५ बेलायती प्रभाव ४.६ सम्बन्ध with the गणतन्त्र चीन ४.७ Rule of the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन ४.७.१ Evaluation by the तिब्बतीय exile community ४.७.२ Evaluation by the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन ५ Geography ५.१ Cities, towns र villages ६ Economy ७ Demographics ७.१ View of the तिब्बतीय exile community ७.२ View of the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन ८ Culture ८.१ Religion ८.२ तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म ८.३ Islam ८.४ Buddhist गुम्बाहरू in तिब्बत ८.५ तिब्बतीय art ८.६ Architecture ८.७ Music ८.८ Festivals ९ Cuisine १० तिब्बत in popular culture १०.१ तिब्बत in film १०.२ तिब्बत in literature ११ References १२ Further reading र media १३ हेर्नुस् also १४ External links १४.१ Against PRC rule र policies in तिब्बत १४.२ For PRC rule र policies in तिब्बत १४.३ Aराजनीतिक

[परिवर्तन्] परिचय

तिब्बतको निर्वासित सरकार र विदेशमा रहेका तिब्बतीय शरणार्थी हरूको समाजका अनुसार तिब्बत, भन्नाले तिनीहरू ति पुरानो ठूलो प्रान्तलाई सम्झन्छन् जसमा परम्परागत प्रान्तहरू अम्दो, खाम, र उ-त्साङपर्दछन्, तर यसका अतिरिक्त जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीनको प्रशासन अरूणाञ्चल प्रदेश, सिक्किम, भूटान, र लद्दाख जहाँ तिब्बती साँस्कृतिक कृयाकलापहरू भेटिन्छन् त्यो सबैलाई तिब्बत अन्तरगत भएको दावी गर्दछ।

दलाइ लामाद्वारा पूर्व शासित तिब्बत स्वशासित उ-त्साङ र पश्चिमी खाम पर्दछन् जबकी अम्दो र पूर्वी खाम हरू किङ्गाई, गान्सु, युनान, र सिचुवान का इलाकाहरू हुन्।

[परिवर्तन्] नाम

[परिवर्तन्] तिब्बतीय

Image:तिब्बत-claims.jpg
							Claimed by तिब्बतीय exile groups.[१]Template:Fact
						तिब्बतीय areas designated by the PRC.[२]
						तिब्बत स्वशासित प्रान्त (actual control).[३]
						Claimed by भारत as part of Aksai Chin.[४]
						Claimed (not controlled) by the PRC as part of the TAR.[५]
						Other ऐतिहासिकly/साँस्कृतिकly-तिब्बतीय areas.[६]Template:Fact

तिब्बतीहरू call their homelर Bod (བོད་), pronounced pö in ह्लासा dialect. It is first attested in the geography of Ptolemy as βαται (batai) (Beckwith, C. U. of भारतna Diss. १९७७). तिब्बतीहरू refer to तिब्बत as a "fatherlर" (Template:Bo), whereas "motherlर" (Template:Bo) is a neologism introduced in the १९६0s to refer to चीन.

[परिवर्तन्] चिनीयाँमा

The आधुनिक चिनीयाँ नाम for तिब्बत, 西藏 (Xīzàng), is a phonetic transliteration derived from the region called त्साङ (western ऊ-त्साङ). The नाम originated during the क्वीङ बंश of चीन, ca. १७००. It can be broken down into "xi" 西 (literally "west"), र "जाङ" 藏 (literally "Buddhist scripture" अथवा "storage"). The शब्द can be interpreted as either "Buddhist scripture of the west" अथवा "western storage." The pre-१७००s historic चिनीयाँ शब्द for तिब्बत was 吐蕃 (Tufan, मध्यकालीन चिनीयाँ उच्चारण: /t'obwǝn/), which comes from the टर्केली word for "heights" र is also the origin of the अङ्‌रेजी शब्द "Tibet."

The सरकार of the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन equates तिब्बत with the तिब्बत स्वशासित प्रान्त (TAR). As such, the नाम "Xiजाङ" is equated with the TAR. In order to refer non-TAR तिब्बतीय areas, अथवा to all of साँस्कृतिक तिब्बत, the शब्द 藏区 ज्याङ्कू (literally, "ethnic तिब्बतीय areas") is used. यद्यपि, चिनीयाँ-भाषा versions of pro-तिब्बतीय independence websites, such as the Free तिब्बत Campaign, the Voice of तिब्बत, र तिब्बत Net use 西藏 ("Xiजाङ"), not 藏区 ("जाङqu"), to mean historic तिब्बत.

Some अङ्‌रेजी-speakers reserve "Xiजाङ", the चिनीयाँ word transliterated into अङ्‌रेजी, for the TAR, to keep the concept distinct from that of historic तिब्बत. Some pro-independence advocates duplicate the situation into the चिनीयाँ भाषा, र use 土番 (Tufan) अथवा 图伯特 (Tubote), which are both phonetic transcriptions of the word "तिब्बत", to refer to historic तिब्बत, this is still used for research area र is known र accepted by most of the चिनीयाँ.

The character 藏 (zàng) has been used in transcriptions referring to त्साङ as early as the युवान बंश, if not earlier, though the आधुनिक शब्द "Xiजाङ" (western त्साङ) was devised in the अठारौं शताब्दी. The चिनीयाँ character 藏 (Zàng) has also been generalized to refer to all of तिब्बत, including other concepts related to तिब्बत such as the तिब्बतीय भाषा (藏文, Zàngwén) र the तिब्बतीय जनता (藏族, Zàngzú).

[परिवर्तन्] In अङ्‌रेजी

The अङ्‌रेजी word तिब्बत, like the word for तिब्बत in most European भाषाs, is derived from the Arabic word Tubbat.^[७] This word is derived via Persian from the Turkic word Töbäd (plural of Töbän), meaning "the heights".^[८] The word for तिब्बत in मध्यकालीन चिनीयाँ, 吐蕃 (पिनयिन Tǔfān, often given as Tubo), is derived from the same Turkic word.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; refs with no content must have a name Tǔfān was pronounced /t'o-bwǝn/ in मध्यकालीन times.[1] PRC scholars favor the theory that "तिब्बत" is derived from Tǔfān.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; refs with no content must have a name^[९]

[परिवर्तन्] भाषा

The तिब्बतीय भाषा is generally classified as a तिब्बतo-Burman भाषा of the Sino-तिब्बतीय भाषा family. Spoken तिब्बतीय includes numerous regional dialects which, in many cases, are not mutually intelligible. Moreover, the boundaries between तिब्बतीय र certain other Himalayan भाषाs are sometimes unclear. In general, the dialects of मध्य तिब्बत (including ह्लासा), खाम, अम्दो, र some smaller nearby areas are considered तिब्बतीय dialects, while other forms, particularly Dzongkha, सिक्किमese, Sherpa, र लद्दाखi, are considered for राजनीतिक reasons by their speakers to be अलग्गै भाषाs. Ultimately, taking into consideration this wider understरing of तिब्बतीय dialects र forms, "greater तिब्बतीय" is spoken by approximately ६ million जनता across the तिब्बतीय उच्च समस्थली. तिब्बतीय is also spoken by approximately १५0,००० exile speakers who have moved from आधुनिक-day तिब्बत to भारत र other countries.

[परिवर्तन्] इतिहास

मुख्य पृष्ठ s: इतिहास of तिब्बत, इतिहास of Exploration in तिब्बत, and विदेशी सम्बन्ध of तिब्बत

[परिवर्तन्] Pre इतिहास

चिनीयाँ र "proto-तिब्बतo-Burman" may have split sometime before ४००० BC, जब चिनीयाँ began growing millet in the Yellow नदी valley while the तिब्बतo-Burmans remained nomads. तिब्बतीय split from Burman around AD ५००.^{[१०][११]}

Prehistoric Iron Age hill forts र burial complexes have recently been found on the Chang ताङ उच्च समस्थली तर the remoteness of the location is hampering archaeological research. The initial identification of this culture is as the Zhang Zhung culture which is described in ancient तिब्बतीय texts र is known as the original culture of the Bön religion.

[परिवर्तन्] The तिब्बतीय साम्राज्य

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A series of सम्राटs ruled तिब्बत from the ७th to the ११th शताब्दी. At times तिब्बतीय rule extended as far south as Bengal र as far north as मंगोलिया.

तिब्बत first enters इतिहास in the Geography of Ptolemy under the नाम batai (βαται), a Greek transcription of the indigenous नाम Bod. तिब्बत next appears in इतिहास in a चिनीयाँ text where it is referred to as fa. The first incident from recorded तिब्बतीय इतिहास which is confirmed externally occurred when King Namri Löntsän (Gnam-ri-slon-rtsan) sent an ambassador to चीन in the early ७th शताब्दी.^[१२]

यद्यपि general, the इतिहास of तिब्बत begins with the शासनकाल of स्रङचङ गम्पो (६0४–६५0 CE) who united parts of the यार्लुङ्ग नदी Valley र ruled तिब्बत as a kingdom. In ६४0 he married Princess Wencheng, the niece of the शक्तिशाली चिनीयाँ सम्राट सम्राट ताइजोङ of ताङ चीन.

तिब्बत continued as a मध्य एशियाली साम्राज्य until the late ९th शताब्दी.

[परिवर्तन्] मंगोल र मञ्चु

In १२४0 , the मंगोलहरू marched into मध्य तिब्बत र आक्रमण गरे several गुम्बाहरू. काओदेन, भाई of मंगोल शासक गउयुक खाँ, participated in a समारोह recognizing the सा-स्क्य लामा as temporal शासक of तिब्बत in १२४७ . The मंगोल खाँs had ruled northern चीन since १२१५ . They were the सम्राटs of the युवान बंश. कुब्ला खाँ was a patron of तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म र appointed the सा-स्क्य लामा उनका "Imperial preceptor," अथवा प्रमुख धार्मिक अधिकारी. तिब्बतीहरू viewed this सम्बन्धhip as an example of yon-mchod, अथवा priest-patron सम्बन्धhip. In practice, the सा-स्क्य लामा was subordinate to the मंगोल खाँ. The collapse of the युवान बंश in १३६८ led to the overthrow of the सा-स्क्य in तिब्बत. तिब्बत was then ruled by a succession of three धर्म निरपेक्ष बंशहरू. According to a चिनीयाँ source, in १३७२, an सम्राट of चीनको Ming बंश granted the desi (sde-srid, viceroy) of तिब्बत the अधिकारी title of Abhiseca State Tutor, र gave him the jade seal of अधिकार. The following year saw this शासक (ज्याम्याङ साग्य ग्याइनकाईन) send जनता to pay tribute to the Ming court.^[१३]

[परिवर्तन्] दलाइ लामा अवतार

मुख्य पृष्ठ : दलाइ लामा

source,^[१४] in १५७८, Althan खाँ, who was subordinate to चीनको Ming बंश from १५७१, invited Soinam Gyamco to lecture on बौद्ध धर्म in किङ्गाई र bestowed upon him the title of "दलाइ लामा," thus beginning the अधिकारी use of the title "दलाइ लामा." The ३rd Dalai paid tribute to the Ming imperial court through Althan खाँ र wrote to चिनीयाँ prime minister, requesting to be allowed to pay tribute to the imperial court on a regular basis, र was approved. In the १६th शताब्दी, Altan खाँ of Tumet मंगोलियाn tribe supported the दलाइ लामा's धार्मिक lineage to be the dominant religion among मंगोलहरू र तिब्बतीहरू.

According to a चिनीयाँ source, the sixth दलाइ लामा enjoyed a lifestyle that included drinking, the company of women, र writing love songs. Declaring him to be unworthy as a monk, मंगोल leader Lha-bजाङ खाँ invaded तिब्बत with the approval of चीनको Kangxi सम्राट in १७0५ . According to this claim, the Kangxi सम्राट dismissed him (the sixth दलाइ लामा) from office र ordered him brought to Beijing for questioning. He died soon afterwards on the way to Beijing in १७0६.^[१५] According to this same चिनीयाँ source, the क्वीङ सम्राट put अम्दो under क्वीङ सरकार's direct rule in १७२४ , र incorporated east खाम into neighbouring चिनीयाँ प्रान्तहरू in १७२८.^[१६] Beginning in the early अठारौं शताब्दी, the क्वीङ सरकार sent a resident comप्रमण्डलer (amban) to ह्लासा. तिब्बतीय factions rebelled in १७५0 र मारिए the ambasa. Then, a क्वीङ सेना entered र defeated the rebels र installed an प्रशासनheaded by दलाइ लामा. The number of soldiers in तिब्बत was kept at about २०००. The defensive duties were partly helped out by a local force which was reorganized by the resident comप्रमण्डलer, र the तिब्बतीय सरकार continued to manage day-to-day affairs as before.

1stDalaiLama.jpg पहिलो दलाइ लामा, गेन्देन Drub १३९१-१४७४	2ndDalaiLama.jpg दोस्रो दलाइ लामा, गेन्देन ग्यास्तो १४७५-१५४१	तेस्रो दलाइ लामा, सोनाम ग्यास्तो १५४३–१५८८	4thDalaiLama.jpg चौथो दलाइ लामा, योन्तेन ग्यास्तो, १५८९-१६१६
NgawangLoJangyasto.jpg पाँचौं दलाइ लामा, लोजाङ ग्यास्तो १६१७-१६८२	6dalaiLama.jpg छैठौं दलाइ लामा, त्साङयाङ ग्यास्तो १६८३-१७0६	7thDalaiLama.jpg सातौं दलाइ लामा,केलजाङ ग्यास्तो, १७0८-१७५७.	8thDalaiLama.jpg आठौं दलाइ लामा, जाम्फेल ग्यास्तो १७५८-१८0४
9thDalaiLama.jpg नवौं दलाइ लामा, लुङतोक ग्यास्तो १८0६-१८१५	10thDalaiLama.jpg दशौं दलाइ लामा , छुल्त्रिम ग्यास्तो १८१६-१८३७	11thDalaiLama१.jpg एघारौं दलाइ लामा , खेन्द्रूप ग्यास्तो १८३८–१८५६	12thDalaiLama.jpg बाह्रौं दलाइ लामा, त्रिन्ले ग्यास्तो १८५७–१८७५
DalaiLama-13 lg.jpg तेह्रौं दलाइ लामा, थुप्तेन ग्यास्तो १८७६-१९३३	चौधौं दलाइ लामा, तेन्जिङ ग्यास्तो १९३५-

[परिवर्तन्] बेलायती प्रभाव

मुख्य आलेख: बेलायती expedition to Tibet

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The first Europeans to arrive in तिब्बत were Portugese प्रमण्डलaries in १६२४ र were welcomed by the तिब्बतीहरू who allowed them to build a church. The अठारौं शताब्दी brought more Jesuits र Capuchins from Europe who gradually met opposition from तिब्बतीय लामाs who finally expelled them from तिब्बत in १७४५ . यद्यपि, at the time not all Europeans were banned from the county - in १७७४ an अङ्‌रेजी nobleman George Bogle came to Shigatse to investigate trade for the बेलायती East भारत Company, introducing the first potato crop into तिब्बत.

यद्यपि by the १९th शताब्दी the situation of विदेशीहरू in तिब्बत grew more ominous. The बेलायती साम्राज्य was encroaching from northern भारत into the Himilayas र Afghanistan र the रसियाn साम्राज्य of the tsars was expरing south into मध्य एशिया र each शक्ति became suspicious of intent in तिब्बत. By the १८५0s तिब्बत had banned all विदेशीहरू from तिब्बत र shut its borders to all outsiders बाहेक the चिनीयाँ.

In १८६५ बेलायत began secretly mapping तिब्बत. Trained भारतn surveyor-spies disguised as pilgrims अथवा traders counted their strides on their travels across तिब्बत र took readings at night. Nain Singh, the most famous measured the देशान्तर र अक्षांश र उचाई of ह्लासा र traced the यार्लुङ्ग त्साङपो नदी.

Then in १९0४ a बेलायती कूटनीतिक प्रमण्डल, accompanied by a large सैनिक escort, forced its way through to ह्लासा. The head of the कूटनीतिक प्रमण्डल was Colonel Francis Younghusband. The principal motivation for the बेलायती प्रमण्डल was a डर, which proved to be unfounded, that रसिया was extending its पाइला into तिब्बत र possibly even giving सैनिक aid to the तिब्बतीय सरकार. तर on उनका way to ह्लासा, यङहस्बेन्ड मारिए १,३०० तिब्बतीहरू in Gyam-Tse (as written in "The Great Game" of Peter Hopkirk), because the natives were in डर of what kind of unequal सन्धि the बेलायती would offer the तिब्बतीहरू. Some कागतपत्रहरू claim that ५,००० तिब्बतीहरू मारिए by बेलायती सेना.[2]

जब प्रमण्डल ह्लासा पुग्यो, दलाइ लामा had already fled to Urga in मंगोलिया, तर a सन्धि was signed by lay र ecclesiastical अधिकारीs of the तिब्बतीय सरकार, र by प्रतिनिधिहरू of the three गुम्बाहरू of Sera, Drepung, र Gरen.^[१७] The सन्धि made provisions for the frontier between सिक्किम र तिब्बत to be respected, for freer trade between बेलायती र तिब्बतीय subjects, र for an indemnity to be paid from the तिब्बतीय सरकार to the बेलायती सरकार for its expenses in dispatching armed troops to ह्लासा. It also made provision for a बेलायती trade agent to reside at the trade mart at Gyantse. The provisions of this १९0४ सन्धि were confirmed in a १९0६ सन्धि signed between Britain र चीन, in which the बेलायती also agreed "not to annex तिब्बतीय territory अथवा to interfere in the प्रशासनof तिब्बत.".^[१८] The position of बेलायती Trade Agent at Gyantse was occupied from १९0४ until १९४४ . It was not until १९३७ , with the creation of the position of "बेलायती प्रमण्डल प्रमुख ह्लासा", that a बेलायती अधिकृत had a स्थायी posting in ह्लासा itself.^[१९] A नेपाली निकाय had also been स्थापना गरियो in ह्लासा after the invasion of तिब्बत by the गोर्खा सरकार of नेपाल in १८५५.^[२०]

In the Anglo-चिनीयाँ Convention of १९0६ which confirmed the Anglo-तिब्बतीय सन्धि of १९0४, Britain agreed "not to annex तिब्बतीय territory अथवा to interfere in the प्रशासनof तिब्बत" while चीन engaged "not to permit any other विदेशी state to interfere with the territory अथवा internal प्रशासनof तिब्बत".^[२१] In the Anglo-रसियाn Convention of १९0७ , Britain also recognized the "suzerainty of चीन over Thibet" र, in conformity with such admitted principle, engaged "not to enter into negotiations with तिब्बत बाहेक through the inशब्दediary of the चिनीयाँ सरकार."^[२२] The क्वीङ मध्य सरकार स्थापना गरियो direct rule over तिब्बत for the first time in १९१0 .

The तेह्रौं दलाइ लामा fled to बेलायती भारत in February १९१0 . The same month, the चिनीयाँ क्वीङ सरकार issued a procलामाtion deposing दलाइ लामा र instigating the search for a new incarराष्ट्र.^[२३] While in भारत, दलाइ लामा became a close friend of the बेलायती राजनीतिक अधिकृत Charles Bell.

The अधिकारी position of the बेलायती सरकार was it would not intervene between चीन र तिब्बत र would only recognize the de facto सरकार of चीन within तिब्बत at this time.^[२४] Bell, in उनका इतिहास of तिब्बत, wrote of this time that "the तिब्बतीहरू were abरoned to चिनीयाँ aggression, an aggression for which the बेलायती सैनिक Expedition to ह्लासा र subsequent retreat [र consequent शक्ति vacuum within तिब्बत) were primarily responsible".^[२५]

[परिवर्तन्] सम्बन्ध with the गणतन्त्र चीन

In February १९१२ the क्वीङ बंश सम्राट abdicated र the new गणतन्त्र चीन was formed.^[२६] In April १९१२ the चिनीयाँ garrison of troops in ह्लासा surrendered to the तिब्बतीय authorities. The new चिनीयाँ Republican सरकार wished to make the commरer of the चिनीयाँ troops in ह्लासा its new तिब्बतीय representative, तर the तिब्बतीहरू were in favour of having all of the चिनीयाँ troops return to चीन.

दलाइ लामा returned to तिब्बत from भारत in July १९१२. By the end of १९१२, the चिनीयाँ troops in तिब्बत had returned, via भारत, to चीन Proper.Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; refs with no content must have a name

In १९१३ , तिब्बत र मंगोलिया signed a सन्धि proclaiming mutual recognition र their independence from चीन. यद्यपि, the validity of such a सन्धि is disputed by historians र diplomats.^[२७] In १९१४, प्रतिनिधिहरू of चीन, तिब्बत र Britain negotiated a सन्धि in भारत: the Simla Convention.

During the convention, the बेलायती tried to divide तिब्बत into Inner र Outer तिब्बत. When negotiations broke down over the specific boundary between Inner र Outer, the बेलायती demरed instead to advance their line of control, enabling them to annex ९0,००० square kiloमीटरs of परम्परागत तिब्बतीय territory in southern तिब्बत, which corresponds to most of the आधुनिक भारतn state of अरूणाञ्चल प्रदेश, while recognizing चिनीयाँ suzerainty over तिब्बत^[२८] र affirming the latter's status as part of चिनीयाँ territory.^[२९] तिब्बतीय प्रतिनिधिहरू secretly signed under बेलायती pressure; यद्यपि, the representative of चीनको मध्य सरकार declared that the secretive annexation of territory was not acceptable. The boundary स्थापना गरियो in the convention, the McMahon Line, was considered by the बेलायती र later the independent भारतn सरकार to be the boundary; यद्यपि, the चिनीयाँ view since then has been that since चीन, which was soveशासनकाल over तिब्बत, did not sign the सन्धि, the सन्धि was meaningless, र the annexation र control of southern तिब्बत अरूणाञ्चल प्रदेश by भारत is illegal. This paved the way to the Sino-भारतn War of १९६२ र the boundary dispute between चीन र भारत today.

The subsequent outbreak of World War I र चिनीयाँ Civil War caused the Western शक्तिs र the infighting factions of चीन proper to lose interest in तिब्बत, र the तेह्रौं दलाइ लामा ruled undisturbed until उनका death in १९३३ . At that time, the सरकार of तिब्बत controlled all of Ü-त्साङ (Dbus-gत्साङ) र western खाम (खामs), roughly coincident with the borders of तिब्बत स्वशासित प्रान्त today. पूर्वी खाम, अलग्गैd by the याङtze नदी was under the control of चिनीयाँ warlord Liu Wenhui. The situation in अम्दो (किङ्गाई) was more complicated, with the Xining area controlled by ethnic Hui warlord Ma Bufang, who constantly strove to exert control over the rest of अम्दो (किङ्गाई).

In १९३५ the १४th दलाइ लामा, Tenzin ग्यास्तो was born in अम्दो in पूर्वी तिब्बत र was recognized as the latest reincarराष्ट्र. He was taken to ह्लासा in १९३७ where he was later given an अधिकारी समारोह in १९३९ . During the १९४0s during World War II, two Austrian mountaineers, Heinrich Harrer र Peter Aufschnaider came to ह्लासा, where Harrer became tutor र consort to the young दलाइ लामा giving him a sound knowledge of western culture र आधुनिक society, until he was forced to leave with the चिनीयाँ invasion in १९५0.

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[परिवर्तन्] Rule of the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन

Neither the गणतन्त्र चीन nor the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन have ever renounced चीन's claim to सार्वभौमिकता over तिब्बत.^[३०]

In १९५0 , the जनता's Liberation सेना invaded the तिब्बतीय area of Chअम्दो, crushing minimal resistance from the ill-equipped तिब्बतीय सेना. In १९५१ , the तिब्बतीय प्रतिनिधिहरू, under PLA सैनिक pressure, signed a seventeen-point agreement with the PRC's मध्य जनता's सरकार affirming चीनको सार्वभौमिकता over तिब्बत. The agreement was ratified in ह्लासा a few months later.^{[३१][३२]}

Though some of the population of तिब्बत at that time were serfs ("mi ser"),^{[३३][३४]} often bound to lर owned by गुम्बाहरू र aristocrats, तिब्बतीहरू in exile have claimed that the serfs र their masters formed only a small part of तिब्बतीय society, र argued that तिब्बत would have आधुनिकized itself without चीनको intervention. यद्यपि, the चिनीयाँ सरकार claims that most तिब्बतीहरू were still serfs in १९५१,^[३५] र have proclaimed that the तिब्बतीय सरकार inhibited the development of तिब्बत during its self-rule from १९१३ to १९५९, र opposed any आधुनिकization efforts proposed by the चिनीयाँ सरकार.^[३६] This agreement was initially put into effect in तिब्बत proper. यद्यपि, पूर्वी खाम र अम्दो were वाहिर the प्रशासनof the सरकार of तिब्बत, र were thus treated like any other चिनीयाँ प्रान्तwith lर redistribution implemented in full. As a result, a rebellion broke out in अम्दो र पूर्वी खाम in June १९५६. The insurrection, supported by the American CIA, eventually spread to ह्लासा. It was crushed by १९५९. During this campaign, tens of thousरs of तिब्बतीहरू were मारिए. The १४th दलाइ लामा र other सरकार principals fled to exile in भारत, तर isolated resistance continued in तिब्बत until १९६९ जब CIA abruptly withdrew its support.

Although the Panchen लामा remained a virtual prisoner, the चिनीयाँ set him as a figurehead in ह्लासा, claiming that he headed the legitimate सरकार of तिब्बत since दलाइ लामा had fled to भारत after the failed तिब्बतीय uprising in १९५९ , र they स्थापना गरियो him as the परम्परागत head of the तिब्बतीय सरकार. In १९६५ , the area that had been under the control of दलाइ लामा's सरकार from the १९१0s to १९५९ (U-त्साङ र western खाम) was set up as an Autonomous Region. The monastic estates were broken up र धर्म निरपेक्ष education introduced. During the साँस्कृतिक Revolution, the चिनीयाँ Red Guards inflicted a campaign of organized vरalism against साँस्कृतिक sites in the entire PRC, including तिब्बतको Buddhist heritage. Some young तिब्बतीहरू joined in the campaign of destruction, voluntarily due to the ideological fervour that was sweeping the entire PRC^{[३७][३८]} र involuntarily due to the डर of being denounced as enemies of the जनता.^[३९] Of the several thousर गुम्बाहरू in तिब्बत, over ६,५०० were destroyed,^[४०] only a hरful of the most important, धार्मिकly अथवा साँस्कृतिकly, गुम्बाहरू remained without major damage according to the चिनीयाँ source.^[४१] र hundreds of thousरs of Buddhist monks र nuns were forced to return to धर्म निरपेक्ष life.^[४२] Some were even imprisoned अथवा मारिए. Since the १९८0s, चिनीयाँ सरकार has apologized for these destructions र restored almost all of the destroyed monastries.

In १९८९ , the Panchen लामा was finally allowed to return to Shigatse, where he addressed a crowd of ३0,०००. र described what he saw as the suffering of तिब्बत under the rule of the PRC in शब्दs reminiscent of the petition he had presented to चिनीयाँ Premier Zhou Enlai in १९६२.^[४३] र the harm being done to उनका country in the नाम of socialist reform. Five days later, he died of a massive heart attack at the age of ५0.^[४४] The १0th Panchen लामा's original petition in May १९६२ was initiately welcomed with the चिनीयाँ Prime minister ordering local सरकार in तिब्बत to correct their work according to the petition. यद्यपि, in October १९६२, the चिनीयाँ मध्य सरकार received a letter from two cadres working in तिब्बतीय area, who accused that most facts in the petition were not true. From then on, the चिनीयाँ सरकार's lost trust of the १0th Panchen लामा.

In १९९५ दलाइ लामा नामd ६ year old Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as the ११th Panchen लामा तर without अधिकारी confirmation, while the PRC नामd another child, Gyancain Norbu in conflict. Gyancain Norbu was raised in Beijing र has appeared occasionally on state media. The PRC-selected Panchen लामा is rejected by तिब्बतीय exile groupsTemplate:Fact who commonly refer to him as the "Panchen Zuma" (literally "fake Panchen लामा"). Gedhun Choekyi Nyima र उनका family have gone missing - into imprisonment according to तिब्बतीय देश निकाला भएकाहरू, र under a hidden identity for protection र privacy according to the PRC.^[४५]

Since १९७९, there have been major economic changes, just as the rest of the PRC, तर the राजनीतिक system remains undemocratic र repressive against the independence activists. Some PRC policies in तिब्बत have been described as moderate, while others are judged to be more oppressive towards independence activists. Most धार्मिक freedoms have been अधिकारीly restored, provided the लामाs do not challenge the PRC rule. विदेशीहरू can visit most parts of तिब्बत.

The PRC continues to portray its rule over तिब्बत as an unalloyed improvement, र विदेशी सरकारहरू continue to make occasional protests about aspects of PRC rule in तिब्बत because of frequent reports of human rights violation in तिब्बत by human rights group such as Human Rights Watch. All सरकारहरू, यद्यपि, recognize the PRC's सार्वभौमिकता over तिब्बत, र none have recognized the तिब्बतको निर्वासित सरकार in भारत.

[परिवर्तन्] Evaluation by the तिब्बतीय exile community

The मध्य तिब्बतीय प्रशासन states that the number that have died in the much unwanted Great Leap Forward, of violence, अथवा other indirect causes since १९५0 is approximately १.२ million,^[४६] which the चिनीयाँ Communist Party denies. The चिनीयाँ Communist Party's अधिकारी toll of deaths recorded for the whole of चीन for the years of the Great Leap Forward is १४ millionTemplate:Fact, तर scholars have estimated the number of famine victims to be between २0 र ४३ million^[४७]. According to Patrick French, the estimate of १.२ million in तिब्बत is not reliable because तिब्बतीहरू were not able to process the data well enough to produce a credible total. There were, यद्यपि, many casualties, with a figure of ४००,००० extrapolated from a calculation Warren W. Smith made from census reports of तिब्बत which show २००,००० "missing" from तिब्बत.^{[४८][४९]} Even The Black Book of Communism expresses doubt at the १.२ million figure, तर does note that according to the चिनीयाँ census the total population of ethnic तिब्बतीहरू in the PRC was २.८ million in १९५३Template:Fact, तर only २.५ million in १९६४Template:Fact. It puts forward a figure of ८००,००० deaths र alleges that as many as १0% of तिब्बतीहरू were interned, with few survivors.^[५०] चिनीयाँ demographers have estimated that ९0,००० of the ३००,००० "missing" तिब्बतीहरू fled the region.^[५१]

The तिब्बतको निर्वासित सरकार also says that, fundamentally, the issue is that of the right to self-deशब्दiराष्ट्र of the तिब्बतीय जनता. दलाइ लामा has stated उनका willingness to negotiate with चीन for genuine autonomy, although he still refutes चीनको claims that तिब्बत was not once an independent country. Some exile तिब्बतीहरू यद्यपि, still call for full तिब्बतीय independence. दलाइ लामा हेर्नुस्s the millions of Han immigrants, attracted to the TAR by economic incentives र preferential socioeconomic policies, as presenting an urgent threat to the तिब्बतीय राष्ट्र by diluting the तिब्बतीहरू both साँस्कृतिकly र through inशब्दarriage. तिब्बतीय exile groups say that despite recent attempts to restore the appearance of original तिब्बतीय culture to attract tourism, the परम्परागत तिब्बतीय way of life is now irrevocably changed. Supporters of दलाइ लामा argue that comparisons between the theocracy before १९५0 र the तिब्बत of today are false because, if चीन had not invaded, the तिब्बतीय सरकार र दलाइ लामा would have worked to improve the material lot of the जनता र their राजनीतिक rights.

It is reported that when Hu Yaobang, the general secretary of the चिनीयाँ Communist Party, visited ह्लासा in १९८0 he was unhappy when he found out the region was lagging behind neighbouring प्रान्तहरू. Policies were changed, र since then the मध्य सरकार's रणनीति in तिब्बत has claimed to have granted most धार्मिक freedoms. यद्यपि, monks र nuns are still imprisoned,^[५२] र many तिब्बतीहरू continue to flee तिब्बत. At the same time, many तिब्बतीय देश निकाला भएकाहरू view projects that the PRC claims to have benefitted तिब्बत, such as the चीन Western Development economic plan अथवा the किङ्गाई-तिब्बत Railway, are actually राजनीतिकly-motivated actions to consolidate मध्य control over तिब्बत by facilitating militarization र Han migration while benefit only a few तिब्बतीहरू. तिब्बतीय देश निकाला भएकाहरू also view the money funneled into साँस्कृतिक restoration projects as being primarily aimed at purely attracting विदेशी tourists. They also claim that तिब्बत is still lagging behind the rest of the PRC. Citing for example, that the first large hospital in तिब्बत was not built until १९८५, that several of ह्लासा's main roads were not paved until १९८७ र that the first students at तिब्बत University did not graduate until १९८८. Template:Fact They also claim that there is still preferential treatment awarded to the Han चिनीयाँ population of the TAR in the labour market as opposed to तिब्बतीहरू.

[परिवर्तन्] Evaluation by the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन

The सरकार of the PRC maintains that the तिब्बतीय सरकार did almost nothing to improve the तिब्बतीहरू' material र राजनीतिक stरard of life during its rule from १९१३-१९५९, र that they opposed any reforms proposed by the चिनीयाँ सरकार.^[५३] According to the चिनीयाँ सरकार's claim, this is the reason for the tension that grew between some चिनीयाँ अधिकारीs र the तिब्बतीय सरकार in १९५९.^[५४] The सरकार of the PRC maintains that the population of तिब्बत in १७३७ was about ८ millionTemplate:Fact , र that due to the backward rule of the local theocracy, there was a rapid decrease during the following two centuries eventually resulting in a population of only about १.१९ million in १९५९Template:Fact. Today, the population of Greater तिब्बत is ७.३ million, of which, according to the २००० census, six million are ethnic तिब्बतीहरू.Template:Fact The सरकार of the PRC views this population growth as the result of the abolition of the theocracy र the introduction of a आधुनिक, higher stरard of living. Based on the census numbers, the PRC also rejects claims that the तिब्बतीहरू are being swamped by Han चिनीयाँ. Instead the PRC claims that the border for Greater तिब्बत drawn by the तिब्बतको निर्वासित सरकार is so large that it incorporates regions such as Xining that were never परम्परागतly तिब्बतीय, hence exaggerating the number of non-तिब्बतीहरू.Template:Fact

The सरकार of the PRC also rejects claims that the lives of तिब्बतीहरू have deteriorated, र claims that the lives of तिब्बतीहरू have been improved immensely compared to self rule before १९५0.^[५५] Benefits that are commonly quoted include - the GDP of the (TAR) today is thirty times that of before १९५0, Workers in तिब्बत have the second highest wages in चीन,^[५६] the TAR has २२,५०० km of highways, as opposed to none in १९५0, all धर्म निरपेक्ष education in the TAR was created after the revolution, the TAR now has २५ scientific research institutes as opposed to none in १९५0, infant mortality has dropped from ४३% in १९५0 to 0.६६१% in २०००, life expectancy has risen from ३५.५ years in १९५0 to ६७ in २०००, the collection र publishing of the परम्परागत Epic of King Gesar, which is the longest epic poem in the world र had only been hरed down orally before, allocation of ३०० million Renminbi since the १९८0s for the maintenance र protection of तिब्बतीय गुम्बाहरू.^[५७] The साँस्कृतिक Revolution र the साँस्कृतिक damage it wrought upon the entire PRC is generally condemned as a राष्ट्रwide catastrophe, whose main instigators, in the PRC's view, the Gang of Four, have been brought to justice. र whose reoccurrence is unthinkable in an increasingly आधुनिकized चीन. The चीन Western Development plan is viewed by the PRC as a massive, benevolent, र patriotic undertaking by the wealthier पूर्वी coast to help the western parts of चीन, including तिब्बत, catch up in prosperity र living stरards.

[परिवर्तन्] Geography

मुख्य पृष्ठ : Geography of तिब्बत

तिब्बत is located on the तिब्बतीय उच्च समस्थली, the world's highest region. Most of the Himalaya mountain range, one of the youngest mountain ranges in the world at only ४ million years old, lies within तिब्बत. Its most famous peak, Mount Everest, is on नेपाल's border with तिब्बत. The सरदर उचाई is about ३,००० m in the south र ४,५०० m in the north.

The atmoधरातल is severely dry nine months of the year, र सरदर snowfall is only १८ inches, due to the rain shadow effect whereby mountain ranges prevent moisture from the ocean from reaching the उच्च समस्थलीx. Western passes receive small amounts of fresh snow each year तर remain traversable all year round. Low temperatures are prevalent throughout these western regions, where bleak desolation is unrelieved by any vegetation beyond the size of low bushes, र where wind sweeps unchecked across vast expanses of arid plain. The भारतn monsoon exerts some influence on पूर्वी तिब्बत. Northern तिब्बत is subject to high temperatures in the summer र intense cold in the winter.

Historic तिब्बत consists of several regions:

• अम्दो (A mdo) in the northeast, incorporated by चीन into the प्रान्तहरू of किङ्गाई, गान्सु र सिचुवान.

• खाम (खामs) in the east, divided between सिचुवान, northern युनान र किङ्गाई.
  • Western खाम, part of the तिब्बतीय Autonomous Region

• U (dBus), in the center, र त्साङ (gत्साङ) in the center-west, part of the तिब्बतीय Autonomous Region

• Ngari (mNga' ris) in the far west, part of the तिब्बतीय Autonomous Region

तिब्बतीय साँस्कृतिक influences extend to the neighboring states of भूटान, नेपाल, adjacent regions of भारत such as सिक्किम र लद्दाख, र adjacent प्रान्तहरू of चीन where तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म is the predominant religion.

On the border with भारत, the region popularly known among चिनीयाँ as South तिब्बत is claimed by चीन र administered by भारत as the state of अरूणाञ्चल प्रदेश.

Several major नदीs have their source in the तिब्बतीय उच्च समस्थली (mostly in present-day किङ्गाई प्रान्त), including:

• याङtze
• Yellow नदी
• Indus नदी
• Mekong
• Brahmaputra नदी - the main नदी that flows through तिब्बत. In तिब्बतीय, referred to as the यार्लुङ्ग त्साङpo
• Ganges
• Salween

The Indus, Brahmaputra नदीs originate from a lake (Tib: Tso Mapham) in Western तिब्बत, near Mt. Kailash. The mountain is a holy pilgrimage for both Hindus र तिब्बतीहरू. The Hindus consider the mountain to be the abode of Lord Shiva. The तिब्बतीय नाम for Mt Kailash is खाँg Rinpoche. Template:Commonscat

[परिवर्तन्] Cities, towns र villages

Template:हेर्नुस्

ह्लासा is तिब्बतको परम्परागत capital र the capital of तिब्बत स्वशासित प्रान्त. ह्लासा contains the world heritage site the Potala Palace र Norbulingka, the residences of the दलाइ लामा. ह्लासा contains a number of significant temples र गुम्बाहरू which are deeply engrained in its इतिहास including Joखाँg र Ramoche Temple.

Shigatse (Gzhis-ka-rtse) is the country's second largest शहर, west of ह्लासा. Gyantse (Rgyal-rtse), Chअम्दो (Chab-mdo) are also amongst the largest.

Other cities in Historic तिब्बत include, Nagchu, Nyingchi (Nying-khri), Nedong (Sne-gdong), Barkam ('Bar-खामs), Sakya (सा-स्क्य), Gartse (Dkar-mdzes), Pelbar (Dpal-'bar), र Tingri (Ding-ri); in सिचुवान, Dartsendo (Dar-btsen-mdo); in किङ्गाई, Kyegundo (Skye-rgu-mdo) अथवा Yushu (Yul-shul), Machen (Rma-chen), Lhatse (Lhar-tse), र Golmud (Na-gor-mo). There is also a large तिब्बतीय settlement in South भारत near Kushalnagara. भारत created this settlement for तिब्बतीय शरणार्थीs that escaped चिनीयाँ persecution र fled to भारत.

[परिवर्तन्] Economy

मुख्य पृष्ठ : Economy of तिब्बत

तिब्बतको GDP in २००१ was १३.९ billion युवान.^[५८] The मध्य सरकार exempts तिब्बत from all taxation र provides ९0% of तिब्बतको सरकार expenditures.^[५९] The तिब्बतीय economy is dominated by subsistence agriculture. Due to limited arable lर, livestock raising is the primary occupation mainly on the तिब्बतीय उच्च समस्थली, among them are sheep, cattle, goats, camels, yaks र horses. यद्यपि, the main crops grown are barley, wheat, buckwheat, rye, potatoes र assorted fruits र vegetables.

In recent years, due to the increased interest in तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म tourism has become an increasingly important sector, र is actively promoted by the authorities. The तिब्बतीय economy is heavily subsidized by the मध्य सरकार र सरकार cadres receives the second highest salaries in चीन.^[६०] The tourism brings in the most income from that of hरicrafts. These include तिब्बतीय hats, jewelry (silver र gold), wooden items, clothing, quilts, fabrics, तिब्बतीय rugs र carpets.

The किङ्गाई-तिब्बत Railway which links the region to किङ्गाई in चीन proper was opened in २००६.^[६१] The चिनीयाँ सरकार claims that the line will promote the development of impoverished तिब्बत.^[६२] तर opponents argue the railway will harm तिब्बत. For instance, तिब्बतीय opponents contend that it would only draw more Han चिनीयाँ residents, the country's dominant ethnic group, who have been migrating steadily to तिब्बत over the last decade, bringing with them their popular culture. They believe that the large influx of Han चिनीयाँ will ultimately extinguish the local culture.^[६३]

Other opponents argue that the railway will damage तिब्बतको fragile ecology र that most of its economic benefits will go to migrant Han चिनीयाँ.^[६४] As activists call for a boycott of the railway, दलाइ लामा has urged तिब्बतीहरू to "wait र हेर्नुस्" what benefits the new line might bring to them. According to सरकार-in-exile's spokemen, दलाइ लामा welcomes the building of the railway, "conditioned on the fact that the railroad will bring benefit to the majority of तिब्बतीहरू."^[६५]

[परिवर्तन्] Demographics

ऐतिहासिकly, the population of तिब्बत consisted of primarily ethnic तिब्बतीहरू. Other ethnic groups in तिब्बत include Menba (Monpa), Lhoba, मंगोलहरू र Hui. According to tradition the original ancestors of the तिब्बतीय जनता, as represented by the six red bरs in the तिब्बतीय flag, are: the Se, Mu, Dong, Tong, Dru र Ra.

The issue of the proportion of the Han चिनीयाँ population in तिब्बत is a राजनीतिकly sensitive one. The तिब्बतीय सरकार-in-Exile says that the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीनhas actively swamped तिब्बत with Han चिनीयाँ migrants in order to alter तिब्बतको demographic makeup, while the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीनhas denied this.

The death toll in तिब्बत since the invasion of the PLA in १९५0 has been estimated at a median of ६००,०००.^[६६]

[परिवर्तन्] View of the तिब्बतीय exile community

Between the १९६0s र १९८0s, many prisoners (over १ million, according to Harry Wu) were sent to laogai camps in अम्दो (किङ्गाई), where they were then employed locally after release. Since the १९८0s, increasing economic liberalization र internal mobility has also resulted in the influx of many Han चिनीयाँ into तिब्बत for work अथवा settlement, though the actual number of this floating population remains disputed.

The तिब्बतको निर्वासित सरकार gives the number of non-तिब्बतीहरू in Greater तिब्बत as ७.५ million (as opposed to ६ million तिब्बतीहरू), र claims this is as a result of an active रणनीति of demographically swamping the तिब्बतीय जनता र further diminishing any chances of तिब्बतीय राजनीतिक independence, र as such, to be in violation of the Geneva Convention of १९४६ that prohibits settlement by occupying शक्तिs.

The तिब्बतको निर्वासित सरकार questions all statistics given by the PRC सरकार, since they do not include members of the जनता's Liberation सेना garrisoned in तिब्बत, अथवा the large floating population of unregistered migrants. The किङ्गाई-तिब्बत Railway (Xining to ह्लासा) is also a major concern, as it is believed to further facilitate the influx of migrants.

[परिवर्तन्] View of the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन

The PRC सरकार does not view itself as an occupying शक्ति र has vehemently denied allegations of demographic swamping. The PRC also does not recognize Greater तिब्बत as claimed by the तिब्बतको निर्वासित सरकार, saying that the idea was engineered by विदेशी imperialists as a plot to divide चीन amongst themselves, (मंगोलिया being a striking precedent, gaining independence with Soviet backing र subseqently alining itself with the Soviet Union) र that those areas वाहिर the TAR were not controlled by the तिब्बतीय सरकार before १९५९ in the first place, having been administered instead by other आसपासका प्रान्तहरू for centuries.^[६७]

The PRC gives the number of तिब्बतीहरू in तिब्बत स्वशासित प्रान्त as २.४ million, as opposed to १९0,००० non-तिब्बतीहरू, र the number of तिब्बतीहरू in all तिब्बतीय autonomous entities combined (slightly smaller than the Greater तिब्बत claimed by exiled तिब्बतीहरू) as ५.0 million, as opposed to २.३ million non-तिब्बतीहरू. In the TAR itself, much of the Han population is to be found in ह्लासा. Population control policies like the one-child रणनीति only apply to Han चिनीयाँ, not to minorities such as तिब्बतीहरू.

Jampa Phuntsok, chairman of the TAR, has also said that the मध्य सरकार has no रणनीति of migration into तिब्बत due to its harsh high-उचाई conditions, that the ६% Han in the TAR is a very fluid group mainly doing business अथवा working, र that there is no immigration problem.^[६८]

Major ethnic groups in Greater तिब्बत by region, २००० census.
	Total	तिब्बतीहरू	Han चिनीयाँ	others
तिब्बत स्वशासित प्रान्त:	२,६१६,३२९	२,४२७,१६८	९२.८%	१५८,५७0	६.१%	३0,५९१	१.२%
- ह्लासा PLC	४७४,४९९	३८७,१२४	८१.६%	८0,५८४	१७.0%	६,७९१	१.४%
- Chअम्दो Prefecture	५८६,१५२	५६३,८३१	९६.२%	१९,६७३	३.४%	२,६४८	0.५%
- Lhokha Prefecture	३१८,१0६	३0५,७0९	९६.१%	१0,९६८	३.४%	१,४२९	0.४%
- Shigatse Prefecture	६३४,९६२	६१८,२७0	९७.४%	१२,५००	२.0%	४,१९२	0.७%
- Nagchu Prefecture	३६६,७१0	३५७,६७३	९७.५%	७,५१0	२.0%	१,५२७	0.४%
- Ngari Prefecture	७७,२५३	७३,१११	९४.६%	३,५४३	४.६%	५९९	0.८%
- Nyingtri Prefecture	१५८,६४७	१२१,४५0	७६.६%	२३,७९२	१५.0%	१३,४0५	८.४%
किङ्गाई प्रान्त:	४,८२२,९६३	१,0८६,५९२	२२.५%	२,६0६,0५0	५४.0%	१,१३0,३२१	२३.४%
- Xining PLC	१,८४९,७१३	९६,0९१	५.२%	१,३७५,0१३	७४.३%	३७८,६0९	२0.५%
- Haidong Prefecture	१,३९१,५६५	१२८,0२५	९.२%	७८३,८९३	५६.३%	४७९,६४७	३४.५%
- Haibei AP	२५८,९२२	६२,५२0	२४.१%	९४,८४१	३६.६%	१0१,५६१	३९.२%
- Huangnan AP	२१४,६४२	१४२,३६0	६६.३%	१६,१९४	७.५%	५६,0८८	२६.१%
- Hainan AP	३७५,४२६	२३५,६६३	६२.८%	१0५,३३७	२८.१%	३४,४२६	९.२%
- Golog AP	१३७,९४0	१२६,३९५	९१.६%	९,0९६	६.६%	२,४४९	१.८%
- Gyêgu AP	२६२,६६१	२५५,१६७	९७.१%	५,९७0	२.३%	१,५२४	0.६%
- Haixi AP	३३२,0९४	४0,३७१	१२.२%	२१५,७0६	६५.0%	७६,0१७	२२.९%
तिब्बतीय areas in सिचुवान प्रान्त
- Aba AP	८४७,४६८	४५५,२३८	५३.७%	२0९,२७0	२४.७%	१८२,९६0	२१.६%
- Garzê AP	८९७,२३९	७0३,१६८	७८.४%	१६३,६४८	१८.२%	३0,४२३	३.४%
- Muli AC	१२४,४६२	६0,६७९	४८.८%	२७,१९९	२१.९%	३६,५८४	२९.४%
तिब्बतीय areas in युनान प्रान्त
- Dêqên AP	३५३,५१८	११७,0९९	३३.१%	५७,९२८	१६.४%	१७८,४९१	५0.५%
तिब्बतीय areas in गान्सु प्रान्त
- Gannan AP	६४0,१0६	३२९,२७८	५१.४%	२६७,२६0	४१.८%	४३,५६८	६.८%
- Tianzhu AC	२२१,३४७	६६,१२५	२९.९%	१३९,१९0	६२.९%	१६,0३२	७.२%
Total for Greater तिब्बत:
With Xining र Haidong	१0,५२३,४३२	५,२४५,३४७	४९.८%	३,६२९,११५	३४.५%	१,६४८,९७0	१५.७%
Without Xining र Haidong	७,२८२,१५४	५,0२१,२३१	६९.0%	१,४७0,२0९	२0.२%	७९0,७१४	१0.९%

This table includes all तिब्बतीय autonomous entities in the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन, plus Xining PLC र Haidong P. The latter two are included to complete the figures for किङ्गाई प्रान्त, र also because they are claimed as parts of Greater तिब्बत by the तिब्बतको निर्वासित सरकार.
P = Prefecture; AP = Autonomous prefecture; PLC = Prefecture-level शहर; AC = Autonomous county
Excludes members of the जनता's Liberation सेना in active service.
Source: Department of Population, Social, Science र Technology Statistics of the राष्ट्रal Bureau of Statistics of चीन (国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司) र Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Comप्रमण्डल of चीन (国家民族事务委员会经济发展司), eds. Tabulation on राष्ट्रalities of २००० Population Census of चीन (《२०००年人口普查中国民族人口资料》). २ vols. Beijing: राष्ट्रalities Publishing House (民族出版社), २००३. (ISBN ७-१0५-0५४२५-५)

[परिवर्तन्] Culture

मुख्य पृष्ठ : Culture of तिब्बत

[परिवर्तन्] Religion

[परिवर्तन्] तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म

मुख्य पृष्ठ : तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म

Religion is extremely important to the तिब्बतीहरू; तिब्बत is the परम्परागत center of तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म, a distinctive form of Vajrayana, which is also related to the Shingon Buddhist tradition in Japan. तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म is practiced not only in तिब्बत तर also in मंगोलिया, the Buryat Republic, the Tuva Republic, र in the गणतन्त्र Kalmykia. तिब्बत is also home to the original spiritual tradition called Bön (also spelled Bon). Various dialects of the तिब्बतीय भाषा are spoken across the country. तिब्बतीय is written in तिब्बतीय script.

[परिवर्तन्] Islam

मुख्य पृष्ठ : Islam in तिब्बत

In तिब्बतीय cities, there are also small communities of Muslims, known as Kachee (Kache), who trace their origin to immigrants from three main regions: Kashmir (Kachee Yul in ancient तिब्बतीय), लद्दाख र the मध्य एशियाली Turkic countries. Islamic influence in तिब्बत also came from Persia. After the invasion of तिब्बत in १९५९ a group ofतिब्बतीय Muslims made a case for भारतn राष्ट्रality based on their historic roots to Kashmir र the भारतn सरकार declared all तिब्बतीय Muslims भारतn citizens later on that year.^[६९] There is also a well स्थापना गरियो चिनीयाँ Muslim community (gya kachee), which traces its ancestry back to the Hui ethnic group of चीन. It is said that Muslim migrants from Kashmir र लद्दाख first entered तिब्बत around the १२th शताब्दी. Marriages र social interaction gradually led to an increase in the population until a sizable community grew up around ह्लासा.

The Potala Palace, former residence of the दलाइ लामाs, is a World Heritage Site, as is Norbulingka, former summer residence of दलाइ लामा.

During the suppression of pro-independence forces in the १९५0s, र during the साँस्कृतिक Revolution in the १९६0s, most ऐतिहासिकly significant sites in तिब्बत were vरalized अथवा totally destroyed.

Since २००२, तिब्बतीहरू in exile have allowed a Miss तिब्बत beauty contest in spite of concerns that this event is considered a Western influence. The beauty contest is condemned by the तिब्बतीय सरकार in exile.

[परिवर्तन्] Buddhist गुम्बाहरू in तिब्बत

Notable गुम्बाहरू:

• Ani Tsankhung Nunnery
• Changzhu Temple
• Dorje Drak
• Drepung गुम्बा
• Drigung गुम्बा
• Dzogchen गुम्बा
• Gरen गुम्बा
• Joखाँg
• Kumbum गुम्बा (खाम)
• Labrang गुम्बा
• Menri गुम्बा
• Namgyal गुम्बा
• Narthang गुम्बा
• Palcho गुम्बा
• Ralung गुम्बा
• Ramoche Temple
• Sakya गुम्बा
• Sanga गुम्बा
• Sera गुम्बा
• Shalu गुम्बा
• Shechen गुम्बा
• Surmang गुम्बा
• Tashilhunpo
• Tsurphu गुम्बा
• Yerpa

[परिवर्तन्] तिब्बतीय art

मुख्य पृष्ठ : तिब्बतीय art

तिब्बतीय representations of art are intricably bound with तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म र commonly depict deities अथवा variations of Buddha in various forms from bronze buddhist statues र shrines, to highly colorful thangka paintings र mरalas.

[परिवर्तन्] Architecture

मुख्य पृष्ठ : तिब्बतीय culture#Architecture

तिब्बतीय architecture contains Oriental र भारतn influences, र reflects a deeply Buddhist approach. The Buddhist wheel, along with two dragons, can be हेर्नुस्n on nearly every Gompa in तिब्बत. The design of the तिब्बतीय Chörtens can vary, from roundish walls in खाम to squarish, four-sided walls in लद्दाख.

The most unusual feature of तिब्बतीय architecture is that many of the houses र गुम्बाहरू are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, र are often made out a mixture of rocks, wood, cement र पृथ्वी. Little fuel is available for heat अथवा lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, र multiple windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at १0 degrees as a precaution against frequent पृथ्वीquakes in the mountainous area.

Stरing at ११७ मीटरs in height र ३६0 मीटरs in width, the Potala Palace is considered as the most important example of तिब्बतीय architecture. Formerly the residence of the दलाइ लामा, it contains over a thousर rooms within thirteen stories, र houses portraits of the past दलाइ लामाs र statues of the Buddha. It is divided between the outer White Palace, which serves as the प्रशासकीय quarters, र the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the लामाs, chapels, १0,००० shrines, र a vast library of Buddhist scriptures.

[परिवर्तन्] Music

मुख्य पृष्ठ : Music of तिब्बत

The music of तिब्बत reflects the साँस्कृतिक heritage of the trans-Himalayan region, centered in तिब्बत तर also known wherever ethnic तिब्बतीय groups are found in भारत, भूटान, नेपाल र further abroad. First र foremost तिब्बतीय music is धार्मिक music, reflecting the profound influence of तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म on the culture.

तिब्बतीय music often involves chanting in तिब्बतीय अथवा Sanskrit, as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of sacred texts अथवा in celebration of various festivals. याङ chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant drums र low, sustained syllables. Other styles include those unique to the various schools of तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म, such as the classical music of the popular Gelugpa school, र the romantic music of the Nyingmapa, Sakyapa र Kagyupa schools.

Nangma dance music is especially popular in the karaoke bars of the urban center of तिब्बत, ह्लासा. Another form of popular music is the classical gar style, which is performed at rituals र ceremonies. Lu are a type of songs that feature glottal vibrations र high pitches. There are also epic bards who sing of तिब्बतको राष्ट्रal hero Gesar.

[परिवर्तन्] Festivals

मुख्य पृष्ठ : तिब्बतीय Festivals

तिब्बत has various festivals which commonly are performed to worship the Buddha throughout the year. Losar is the तिब्बतीय New Year Festival र the Monlam Prayer Festival follows it in the first month of the तिब्बतीय calendar which involves many तिब्बतीहरू dancing र participating in sports events र sharing picnics.

[परिवर्तन्] Cuisine

मुख्य पृष्ठ : तिब्बतीय cuisine

The most important crop in तिब्बत is barley, र dough made from barley flour called tsampa, is the staple food of तिब्बत. This is either rolled into noodles अथवा made into steamed dumplings called momos. Meat dishes are likely to be yak, goat, अथवा mutton, often dried, अथवा cooked into a spicy stew with potatoes. Mustard हेर्नुस्d is cultivated in तिब्बत, र therefore features heavily in its cuisine. Yak yoghurt, butter र cheese are frequently eaten, र well-prepared yoghurt is considered something of a prestige item. Butter tea is very popular to drink र many तिब्बतीहरू drink up to १०० cups a day.

[परिवर्तन्] तिब्बत in popular culture

[परिवर्तन्] तिब्बत in film

In recent years there have been a number of films produced about तिब्बत, mostly notably Hollywood films such as Seven Years in तिब्बत, starring Brad Pitt, र Kundun, a biography of the दलाइ लामा, directed by Martin Scorsese. Both of these films were banned by the चिनीयाँ सरकार because of तिब्बतीय राष्ट्रalist overtones. Other films include Samsara, The Cup र the १९९९ Lhakpa Tsamchoe (तिब्बतको first film actress) film Himalaya, a French-American produced film with a तिब्बतीय cast set in नेपाल र तिब्बत. In २००५, exile तिब्बतीय filmmaker Tenzing Sonam र उनका partner Ritu Sarin made Dreaming ह्लासा, the first interराष्ट्रally recognized feature film to come out of the diaspora to explore the contemporary reality of तिब्बत. In २००६, Sherwood Hu made Prince of the Himalayas, an adaptation of Shakespeare's Hamlet, set in ancient तिब्बत र featuring an all-तिब्बतीय cast. हेर्नुस्n also briefly in the १९९४ movie The Shadow, starring Alec Baldwin.

[परिवर्तन्] तिब्बत in literature

[परिवर्तन्] References

[परिवर्तन्] Further reading र media

• Allen, Charles (२००४). Duel in the Snows: The True Story of the यङहस्बेन्ड प्रमण्डल to ह्लासा. London: John Murray, २००४. ISBN 0-७१९५-५४२७-६.
• Bell, Charles (१९२४). तिब्बत: Past & Present. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Dowman, Keith (१९८८). The शक्ति-Places of मध्य तिब्बत: The Pilgrim's Guide. Routledge & Kegan Paul. London, ISBN 0-७१0२-१३७0-0. New York, ISBN 0-१४-0१९११८-६.
• Goldstein, Melvyn C.; with the help of Gelek Rimpoche. A इतिहास of आधुनिक तिब्बत, १९१३-१९५१: The Demise of the लामाist State. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers (१९९३), ISBN ८१-२१५-0५८२-८. University of California (१९९१), ISBN 0-५२0-0७५९0-0.
• Grunfeld, Tom (१९९६). The Making of आधुनिक तिब्बत. ISBN १-५६३२४-७१३-५.
• ग्यास्तो, Palden (१९९७). "The Autobiography of a तिब्बतीय Monk". Grove Press. NY, NY. ISBN 0-८0२१-३५७४-९
• McKay, Alex (१९९७). तिब्बत र the बेलायती Raj: The Frontier Cadre १९0४-१९४७. London: Curzon. ISBN 0-७००७-0६२७-५.
• Norbu, Thubten Jigme; Turnbull, Colin (१९६८). तिब्बत: Its इतिहास, Religion र जनता. Reprint: Penguin Books (१९८७).
• Pachen, Ani; Donnely, Adelaide (२०००). Sorrow Mountain: The Journey of a तिब्बतीय Warrior Nun. Kodansha America, Inc. ISBN १-५६८३६-२९४-३.
• Petech, Luciano (१९९७). चीन र तिब्बत in the Early XVIIIth शताब्दी: इतिहास of the Establishment of चिनीयाँ Protectorate in तिब्बत. T'oung Pao Monographies, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN ९-००४0३-४४२-0.
• Samuel, Geoffrey (१९९३). Civilized Shamans: बौद्ध धर्म in तिब्बतीय Societies. Smithsonian ISBN १-५६0९८-२३१-४.
• Schell, Orville (२०००). Virtual तिब्बत: Searching for Shangri-La from the Himalayas to Hollywood. Henry Holt. ISBN 0-८0५0-४३८१-0.
• Shakya, Tsering (१९९९). The Dragon in the Lर of Snows: A इतिहास of आधुनिक तिब्बत Since १९४७. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-२३१-११८१४-७.
• Smith, Warren W. (Jr.) (१९९६). तिब्बतीय राष्ट्र: A इतिहास of तिब्बतीय राष्ट्रalism र Sino-तिब्बतीय सम्बन्ध. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-८१३३-३१५५-२.
• Stein, R. A. (१९६२). तिब्बतीय Civilization. First published in French; अङ्‌रेजी translation by J. E. Stapelton Dनदी. Reprint: Stanford University Press (with minor revisions from १९७७ Faber & Faber edition), १९९५. ISBN 0-८0४७-0८0६-१.
• Thurman, Robert (२००२). Robert Thurman on तिब्बत. DVD. ASIN B०००0५Y७२२.
• Wilby, Sorrel (१९८८). Journey Across तिब्बत: A Young Woman's १९००-Mile Trek Across the Rooftop of the World. Contemporary Books. ISBN 0-८0९२-४६0८-२.
• Wilson, Brरon (२००४). Yak Butter Blues: A तिब्बतीय Trek of Faith. Heliographica. An Imprint of Pilgrim's Tales. ISBN १-९३३0३७-२३-७, ISBN १-९३३0३७-२४-५.
• जियावेई, वाङ् (२०००). "The ऐतिहासिक Status of चीनको तिब्बत". ISBN-७-८0११३-३0४-८.
• तिब्बत wasn't always ours, says चिनीयाँ scholar by Venkatesan Vembu, Daily News & Analysis, २२ February २००७

[परिवर्तन्] हेर्नुस् also

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• अम्दो र खाम in पूर्वी तिब्बत
• Évariste Régis Huc (Abbé Huc) visited तिब्बत in १८४५-१८४६, र wrote उनका observations in Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les années १८४४-१८४६.
• Francis यङहस्बेन्ड led a punitive सैनिक expedition to तिब्बत in १९0४.
• Alexरra David-Neel visited ह्लासा in १९२४ , र wrote several books about the country र its culture.
• Human rights in the जनवादी गणतन्त्र चीन
• Interराष्ट्रal तिब्बत Independence Movement
• List of active autonomist र secessionist movements
• तिब्बतीय American
• Seven Years in तिब्बत
• Kundun
• तिब्बतीय बौद्ध धर्म
• South तिब्बत
• Nangpa La killings
• लद्दाख
• Baltistan

[परिवर्तन्] External links

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[परिवर्तन्] Against PRC rule र policies in तिब्बत

• तिब्बतीय सरकार in Exile's main web site
• तिब्बतीय सरकार in Exile's सरकार site
• तिब्बतीय Centre for Human Rights र Democracy
• Canada तिब्बत Committee
• मध्य तिब्बतीय प्रशासन(सरकार in Exile)
• तिब्बतीय Review (अधिकारी website of the magazine, incl. numerous articles)
• तिब्बत Online - तिब्बत Support Group
• तिब्बतीय Studies WWW Virtual Library
• Voice of तिब्बत
• Australia-तिब्बत Council
• The Times of तिब्बत
• Phayul News & Views on तिब्बत
• Doखाम Chushi Gangdruk
• Free तिब्बत Articles
• Students for A Free तिब्बत
• The तिब्बत Society of the United Kingdom
• Freedom for तिब्बत
• Committee of १०० for तिब्बत
• Free तिब्बत
• Alliance Francophone pour le तिब्बत Libre
• Les Amis du तिब्बत - Luxembourg
• The तिब्बतीय Aid Project

[परिवर्तन्] For PRC rule र policies in तिब्बत

• तिब्बतीय इतिहास on the चीन तिब्बत Information Center of the PRC
• चीन, तिब्बत र the चिनीयाँ राष्ट्र
• चीन तिब्बत Information Center
• चिनीयाँ सरकार white paper, "तिब्बतको March Toward आधुनिकization" (२००१)
• चिनीयाँ सरकार white paper "तिब्बत -- Its Ownership र Human Rights Situation" (१९९२)
• Naming of तिब्बत (परम्परागत चिनीयाँ)
• PRC सरकार तिब्बत information
• Regional Ethnic Autonomy in तिब्बत (May २००४)
• तिब्बत Online (सरलीकृत चिनीयाँ)
• तिब्बत University (सरलीकृत चिनीयाँ)
• तिब्बत Tour (तिब्बत Tourism Bureau अधिकारी Site)
• White Paper on Ecological Improvement र Environmental Protection in तिब्बत
• White Paper on तिब्बतीय Culture र Homayk
• Friendly Feudalism: The तिब्बत Myth by Michael Parenti
• [3](A Response Article To Michael Parenti's Article)

[परिवर्तन्] Aराजनीतिक

• तिब्बतीय Studies Internet Resources
• Haiwei Trails - Timeline of तिब्बत
• खाम Aid Foundation
• Pictures of तिब्बत
• Mondoतिब्बत A Photo Book by Marco Silvestri with ४८ chapters र ५२०० Photos of तिब्बत
• Photographs
• The Impact of चीनको Reform रणनीति on the Nomads of Western तिब्बत by Melvyn C. Goldstein र Cynthia M. Beall - An examiराष्ट्र of the impact of चीनको post-१९८0 तिब्बत रणनीति on a परम्परागत nomadic area of तिब्बतको Changताङ (Northern उच्च समस्थली) about ३०० miles west-north-west of ह्लासा in Phala Xiang, Ngamring county.
• तिब्बत Constitution
• The तिब्बतीय र Himalayan Digital Library
• [4]
• Template:Wikitravel,