葡萄牙語

Most linguists have always recognized the unity of these linguistic varieties (for instance, Joan Corominas, Lindley Cintra, Coseriu), as they were once just the same language and both are relatively conservative varieties. However, in practice, they are normally treated as different languages by both populations mainly due to sociolinguistic factors. During the Middle Ages, Galician and Portuguese were undoubtedly the same language, nowadays known as Portuguese-Galician, a language used for poetic works even in Castile. The Galician deputies in the European Union Parliament, Jose Posada (1994–1999) and Camilo Nogueira (1999–2004), spoke in Portuguese and said that his language is already official in the EU, that is Portuguese. There are many Galician groups that demand the reunification of the language.

[编辑] 非洲

In sub-Saharan Africa, Portuguese is a growing language and is projected by UNESCO to be one of the most spoken languages within 50 years. As the populations of Angola and Mozambique continue to grow, their influence on Portuguese will becoming increasingly important. Angola and Mozambique, along with Sao Tome and Principe, Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau are known as the Paises Africanos de Lingua Oficial Portuguesa (Official Portuguese Language African Countries) or PALOP, forming a community of some 16 million speakers (9 million use it has first or only language, the rest are bilinguals, using the language daily). The Portuguese language especially grew in use after the independence of Portugal's former colonies. Independence movements from Guinea-Bissau to Mozambique saw it as an instrument to achieve their countries development and national unity. Portuguese is spoken and a learning language in Malawi, Namibia, Senegal, South Africa, and Zimbabwe. Spoken by 20% of the population of Namibia and by more than one million people in South Africa.

A representation of the placement of a standard of Portugal after it's discovery of the Congo river in the 15th century. In the 21st century, Africa is home to the fastest growing Portuguese speaking countries, making Africa a major player in the future development of Portuguese.

In the south of Senegal, known as Casamance, an active Portuguese creole community linked culturally and linguistically to Guinea-Bissau, learning the history and language of Portugal is popular, and people feel they are learning part of their own background, since they are desdendants of both Portuguese and Africans. A Portuguese creole linked to Sao Tome and Principe is the language of the island of Annobon, Equatorial Guinea.

In Angola, Portuguese is quickly becoming a national language rather than only an official language or a cohesion vehicle. By the census of 1983, in the capital, Luanda, Portuguese was the first language of 75% of a population of 2.5 million. In the entire country 60% of the 12.5 million inhabitants spoke Portuguese as their main spoken language . Most younger Angolans can only speak Portuguese. Angola receives several Portuguese and Brazilian televison stations. There are also many other native languages in Angola, some words from those languages have been borrowed by Portuguese, when the retornados returned to Portugal after Angola's independence. Words like ia (yes), bue (many) or bazar (going away), common in the young and urban Portuguese population have their origin in Angolan languages, used in Angolan Portuguese.

Mozambique is among the countries where the Portuguese has the status of official language, being spoken essentially as a second language. However, it is the main language in the cities. According to the Census of 1997, Portuguese speakers account for more than 40% of the population, this number rises to more than 72% in the urban areas. But only 9% consider Portuguese as their main language (26% in the cities). All the Mozambican writers write in Portuguese, it has become attached to the colour and texture of the Mozambican culture.

In Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau, the most widely spoken languages are Portuguese creoles known as Crioulos, and the informal use of the Portuguese language seems to decrease. Most Cape Verdians can also speak Standard Portuguese, used formally. There is some decreoulization due to education and the popularity of Portugal's national TV channels. The case is a bit different in Guinea-Bissau where, Portuguese and its Creole is spoken by more than 60% of the inhabitants, of which Portuguese itself is only spoken by 14%.

In Sao Tome and Principe, the Portuguese used by the population is an archaic Portuguese, known as Sao Tomean Portuguese, presenting many similarities with Brazilian Portuguese. Politicians and the upper classes use the modern European Portuguese variety, much like the other PALOP countries. Three different Portuguese creoles are also spoken in Sao Tome and Principe. Usually, Children can only speak Portuguese, because of their parents preference, and not because of school, by the time they are adults they usually have learned a Portuguese Creole known as Forro. But more than 50% of the population keeps using Portuguese informally and its use seems to increase. Almost all the population can speak Portuguese.

In Malacca in Malaysia, there is a Portuguese creole known as Cristao or Papia Kristang still spoken by some of the Eurasian population. There are also active Portuguese creoles, especially in India and Sri Lanka. In Japan, Portuguese is spoken by Brazilians of Japanese descent, known as dekassegui, who number approximately 250,000 people.

In East Timor, the most spoken language is Tetum, an Austronesian language, but it has been heavily influenced by Portuguese. The reintroduction of Portuguese as an official language has caused suspicion and resentment among some younger East Timorese who have been educated under the Indonesian system, and do not speak it. Portuguese in East Timor is spoken by less than 20% of its population, mostly the elder generation, though this percentage is increasing as Portuguese is being taught to the younger generation and to interrested adults. East Timor asked the other CPLP nations to help it to reintroduce Portuguese as an official language. East Timor uses Portuguese to link itself to a larger international community and to differentiate itself from Indonesia. Xanana Gusmao, president of East Timor, believes that Portuguese will be widely spoken again within 10 years.

[编辑] 官方地位

The CPLP or Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries is an international organization consisting of the eight independent countries which have Portuguese as an official language. Portuguese is also an official language of the European Union, Mercosul and the African Union (one of the working languages) and one of the official languages of other organizations. Except for the Asian territories (East Timor and Macau), Portuguese is the sole official language in each country.

[编辑] 方言

请参看：葡萄牙语方言

Portuguese language speakers do not understand their dialects as "dialects", but as "accents" (Port. sotaques) or even pronunciation (Port. pronuncia), even if in different countries, but especially within the same. Mostly because the term "dialect" has been used to classify a language without prestige.

Standard European Portuguese has changed more than the other varieties. Still, all aspects and sounds of all Portuguese (nation) dialects can be found in some Brazilian (nation) dialect. African Portuguese especially Sao Tomean Portuguese has many similarities with Brazilian Portuguese, also Southern Portugal dialects presents many similarities, especially, the excessive use of the geround. In Europe, Alto-Minhoto and Transmontano are very similar to Galician.

Even with independence of the former African colonies, the standard Portuguese of Portugal is still the preferred standard for the African Portuguese countries. Thus, Portuguese has only two learning accent standards, the European and the Brazilian. Note that: in Portuguese there are four preferred accents: Coimbra's, Lisbon's, Rio de Janeiro's and Sao Paulo's and these four influence most other dialects.

主要的葡萄牙语方言：

巴西葡萄牙语方言

巴西

1. Caipira — not actually a particular regional dialect, this term roughly means "rustic" or "yokel" and is sometimes used to refer to the way people from the countryside or from some regions of agricultural background speak (eg. Goias, Minas Gerais); some people might find the term offensive
2. Cearense — Ceara
3. Baiano — Region of Bahia
4. Fluminense (listen) — States of Rio de Janeiro and Espirito Santo (the city of Rio de Janeiro has a particular way of speaking)
5. Gaucho — Rio Grande do Sul
6. Mineiro — Minas Gerais
7. Nordestino (listen) — northeastern states of Brazil (the interior area and Recife have particular ways of speaking)
8. Nortista — Amazon Basin states
9. Paulistano — 圣保罗市
10. Sertao — States of Goias and Mato Grosso
11. Sulista — 巴西南部

葡萄牙葡萄牙语

葡萄牙

1. Acoriano (听) — Azores
2. Alentejano (听) — Alentejo
3. Algarvio (听) — Algarve (there is a particular small dialect in the western area)
4. Alto-Minhoto (听) — North of Braga (interior)
5. Baixo-Beirao; Alto-Alentejano (listen) — Central Portugal (interior)
6. Beirao (听) — central Portugal
7. Estremenho (听) — Regions of Coimbra and Lisbon (can be subdivided in Lisbon Portuguese and Coimbra Portuguese)
8. Madeirense (听) — Madeira
9. Nortenho (听) — Regions of Braga and Porto
10. Transmontano (听) Tras-os-Montes

安哥拉

1. Benguelense — Benguela province
2. Luandense (听) — Luanda province
3. Sulista — South of Angola

安哥拉葡萄牙语

其他地区

• Caboverdiano (听) — 佛得角
• Guineense (听) — Guinea-Bissau
• Macaense (听) — Macau, China
• Mocambicano (听) — Mozambique
• Santomense (听) — Sao Tome and Principe
• Timorense (听) — East Timor
• Galician — Galiza, Spain

不同大洲各异的葡萄牙语：安哥拉（非洲）、葡萄牙（欧洲）和巴西（南美洲）。

走开

• 安哥拉: bazar, ir embora
• 巴西: ir embora, (or "vazar" as a slang);
• 葡萄牙: ir embora, (or bazar among teenagers);

巴士

• 葡萄牙: autocarro
• 巴西: onibus
• 安哥拉: machimbombo

slum quarter

• Angola: muceque
• Brazil: favela
• Portugal: bairro de lata

[编辑] Derived languages

Main article: Portuguese Creole

Portugal in the period of discoveries and colonization created a linguistic contact with native languages and people of the discovered lands and thus pidgins were formed. Until the 18th century, these Portuguese pidgins were used as Lingua Franca in Asia and Africa. Later, the Portuguese pidgins were expanded grammatically and lexically, as it became a native language. These creoles are spoken, mostly, by inter-racial communities (Portuguese people with natives).

Cape Verde:

• Crioulo Barlavento (Criol)
• Crioulo Sotavento (Kriolu)

Equatorial Guinea:

• Falar de Ano Bom

Guinea-Bissau and Senegal:

• Crioulo da Guine (Kriol)

India:

• Creole of Diu
• Creole of Vaipim
• Kristi
• Lingua da Casa

Macau, China:

• Macaista

Malaysia, Singapore:

• Papia Kristang

Netherlands Antilles and Aruba:

• Papiamento

Sao Tome and Principe:

• Angolar
• Forro
• Lunguye

Sri Lanka:

• Burgher

Suriname:

• Saramacano

Some hybrid dialects came to exist after an interaction with Spanish:

• A Fala — Spain
• Barranquenho — Portugal
• Gallego — Spain (The official variety, Galicians name it "Castrapo")
• Portunol — Uruguai, Paraguai, Brazil and Argentina

[编辑] Sounds

Main article: Portuguese sounds

葡萄牙语之所以特别吸引语言学家的地方在于其语音结构的复杂。这种语言拥有9个元音、5个鼻化元音和25个辅音。另外，葡萄牙语是一种“无重音语言”，因此，即使是在同一种方言中也存在着截然不同的发音。

元音

鼻元音

半元音

辅音

[编辑] 语法

Main articles: 葡萄牙语语法 — Personal pronouns — Verbs conjugation

Verbs are divided into three conjugations, which can be identified by looking at the infinitive ending, one of "-ar", "-er", "-ir" (and "-or", irregular verbs). Most verbs ends with "-ar", such as cantar (to sing). All verbs with the same ending follow the same patern.

In Portuguese, verbs are divided into moods:

• Imperative. Used to express a wish, command or advice
• Indicative. Used to express a fact
• Subjective. Used to express a wish or a possibility

All Portuguese nouns have one of two genders: masculine or inclusive and feminine or exclusive. Most adjectives and pronouns, and all articles indicate the gender of the noun they reference. The feminine gender in adjectives is formed in a different way to that in nouns. Most adjectives ending in a consonant remain unchanged: homem superior (superior man), mulher superior (superior woman). This is also true for adjectives ending in "e": homem forte(strong man), mulher forte(strong woman). Except for this, the noun and the adjective must always be in agreement.

[编辑] 词汇

Since Portuguese is a Romance language, most of the language comes from Latin. However, other languages that have come into contact with Portuguese have left their mark.

[编辑] Pre-Roman origin words

Very few traces of the native (Lusitanians, Conii, or Calicians) or pre-Roman settlers like the Phoenicians, Carthaginians or Celts lexicon persist in the language, but there are some exceptions, most are unconfirmed. Many places in Portugal, have pre-Roman names, such has the name of the cities of Braga and Coimbra and the rivers Minho and Tamega.

Native Iberian:

• Abobora (pumpkin)
• Bezerro (year-old calf)
• Louca (claw)
• Manteiga (butter)
• Sapo (frog)

Celtic:

• Cabana (hut)
• Cama (bed)
• Camisa (shirt)
• Carvalho(oak)
• Cerveja (beer)
• Touca (headress)

Phoenician:

• Malha (mesh)
• Mapa (map)
• Saco (bag)

[编辑] From Latin to Portuguese

Portuguese, both in morphology and syntax, represents an organic transformation of Latin without the direct intervention of any foreign language. The sounds, grammatical forms, and syntactical types, with a few exceptions, are derived from Latin. And almost 90% of the vocabulary is still derived from the language of Rome. Some of the changes began during the Empire, others took place later. Since Portuguese was reinfluenced by it (reinfluence represented with 1), many original words are still familiar to Portuguese speakers.

N.B.: In the Latin examples below, we have used all-capitals so as to be in line with how the ancient language was actually written. Note also that the letter V was the vowel we know today as U, and that the C was always pronounced /k/, so CENTV was pronounced /kentu/ (the derived Cento in Portuguese is pronunced as /se~tu/).

Nasalization — A vowel before [m] and [n] has a tendency to become a nasal vowel, this occurs in many languages. In the case of Portuguese, it happened between the sixth and seventh centuries. This change sharply distinguishes Portuguese from Spanish, in which it did not occur.

• LVNA > l[ũ]a > Lua (moon).

Palatalization — Another assimilation occurs before the high vowels [i] and [e], or near the semi-vowel, or palatal [j].

• CENTV > [tj]ento > [ts]ento > cento, (hundred)
• FACERE > fa[tj]ere > fa[ts]er > fa[dz]er > fazer, (to do)
• A more ancient evolution was FORTIA > for[ts]a > forca (strength)

Elision — Simultaneous influence in a consonant by vowels, occurring a sintagmatic chain.

• DOLORE > door > dor (pain) — dolorido¹ (in pain)
• BONV > boo > bom, (good)
• ANELLV > aelo > elo (Ring) — Anel¹ (hand ring)

Voicing — some consonants did not disappear but rather evolved:

• MUTV > mudo (deaf)
• LACV > lago (lake)
• FABA > fava (broadbean)

Simplification of consonant clusters, especially doubled vowels, occurred:

• GVTTA > gota (drop)
• PECCARE > pecar (to sin)

Dissimilation — Modification of a sound by the influence of neighbouring sounds.

• Dissimilation between vowels:
  • LOCVSTA > lagosta (lobster)
  • CAMPANA > campaa > campa (tomb)
• Dissimilation between consonants:
  • MEMORARE > nembrar > lembrar (to remember) — Memorizar¹ (to memorize)
  • ANIMA > alma (soul) — Animado¹ (livened up)
  • LOCALE > logar > lugar (place) — local¹ (place)

Some other alterations were semi-vowel metathesis: PRIMARIV becomes primeiro (Eng. first); consonant metathesis in [l] and [r] are rare in Portuguese (e.g. TENEBRAS > teevras > trevas, Eng. darkness); and epenthesis, where there is not a total assimilation by adding new sounds. Such as for wine: Vulgar Latin: VINO, medieval Portuguese Vi~o, Modern Portuguese (since 14th or 15th centuries): Vinho. However, the sound of medieval Portuguese is still alive in some Portuguese dialects of Brazil and Sao Tome and Principe. Another specially relevant shift was the loss of the intervocalic /l/ in a very large set of words, already described in the list above as an example of "elision" → e.g: SALIRE > sair; COLARE > coar; NOTVLA > nodoa, with the typical portuguese voicing of /t/ in /d/ (AMATVS > amado). Fewer words remaned unchanged, such as Taberna (tavern).

[编辑] Germanic origin words

The Germanic influence in Portuguese was small restricted to warfare and cloths used in war. The influence also exists in placenames such has Ermesinde and Esposende, where sinde and sende are derived from the Germanic "sinths" (military expedition).

• Barao (baron) from Germanic baro
• Ganhar (to win) from Germanic waidanjan
• Guerra (war) from Gothic *wirro
• Roubar (to rob) from Germanic raubon
• Saga (Saga) from Gothic saega

[编辑] Arabic origin words

Projections indicate 1000 Arabic loan words. In old Portuguese this represented 25% of the used lexicon, today its importance decreased has the language became richer and reinfluenced by Greek, Latin and other languages.

• Alcova (Alcove) from alkubba
• Aldeia (village) from aldaya
• Alface (lettuce) from alkhass
• Algarismo (algarism, number) from alkarizmi
• Almirante (admiral) from amir + ar-rahl
• Almofada (cushion) from almukhadda
• Ambar (amber) from anbar
• Armazem (warehouse) from almahazan (see "magazine")
• Arroz (rice) from arruz (loan from Greek oryza)
• Azeite (olive oil) from azzait
• Garrafa (bottle) from garrafa (see "caraff")
• Girafa (giraffe) from zurafa
• Jasmim (jasmin) from Persian jasamin
• Jarra (jar) from jarra
• Xadrez (Chess) from shatranj (loan from Sanscrit chaturanga)
• Xerife (sheriff) from sharif

[编辑] Asian, Amerindian and African origin Words

With the Portuguese discoveries a linguistic contact was made, and Portuguese language became influenced by other languages other than European or Arabic. Many placenames and local animals have Amerindian names in Brazil, in Angola and Mozambique, the same occurs with the local Bantu languages.

Asian:

• Catana (cutlass) from Japanese Katana
• Cha (Tea), from Chinese cha
• Corja (rabble) from Malay korchchu
• Ramarrao (routinous sound), from Hindu Rama-Rama
• Manga (mango), from Malay mangga

Amerindian:

• Ananas (a pineapple species) from Tupi-Guarani nana
• Abacaxi (another pineapple species) from Tupi iba + cati
• Jaguar (jaguar) from Tupi-Guarani jaguara
• Tatu (armadillo) from Guarani tatu
• Tucano (toucan) from Guarani tucan

Sub-saharan Africa:

• Banana (banana) from Wolof
• Bungular (to dance like African wizards) from Kimbundu kubungula
• Chimpanze (chimpanzee) from Bantu
• Cabiri (small domestic animal) from Kimbundu kabiribiri
• Cafune (affections made in the head) from Kimbundu kifumate

[编辑] Writing system

Main article: Portuguese alphabet

Portuguese is written using the Latin alphabet with 26 letters. Three of them (K, W and Y) are only used for non-Portuguese origin words, in terms like darwinismo (Darwinism, from English "Darwin"). It uses c and acute, grave, circumflex and tilde accents over vowels, as well as, in some forms and only in Brazil, diaeresis on a U as in linguistica (Linguistics, linguistica is used in the rest of the Portuguese speaking nations).

[编辑] Written varieties

Until the Ortographic Agreement is established, Portuguese has two written varieties, but Portuguese speakers prefer to name them as Padroes (Eng. Standards):

• European and African Portuguese
• Brazilian Portuguese

The differences between Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese varieties are in vocabulary, pronunciation and syntax, especially in popular varieties, while between upper-class Brazilians these differences ease largely. The differences are somewhat less than those between American English and British English.

Some apparent differences between the two varieties in lexicon are not really differences. In Brazil, the common term for carpet is tapete. And, in Portugal, alcatifa. However, many dialectal zones in Portugal uses tapete and other areas in Brazil uses alcatifa. This applies in almost all such apparent differences, except in the new terms, such as onibus in Brazil, that is Autocarro in Portugal.

In Brazil most first "c" when "cc", "cc" or "ct"; and "p" when "pc", "pc" or "pt" from the language were eliminated since they are not pronounced in the cultivated spoken language, a remnant from the language's Latin origin (some continue to exist in cultivated Brazilian Portuguese, some more in the European).

Also, there are differences in accent marks, due to:

1. Different pronunciation. Brazil in words such as "Antonio" (Anthony) or "anonimo" (anonimous) uses close vowels, where Portugal and Africa uses open ones, "Antonio" or "anonimo", respectively. In the case of Africa, it is mostly due that the European Portuguese is preferred standard.
2. Easy reading. Because "qu" can be read in two different ways in Portuguese: "ku" or "k", Brazil decided to facilitate it, using the diaeresis. Insted of "cinquenta" they write "cinquenta".

A Spelling Reform (Port. Reforma Ortografica), written in 1990, will create an International Portuguese Standard, and it was ratified by Brazil, Cape Verde and Portugal. East Timor, not an original subscriber, will ratify shortly along with Guinea-Bissau. East Timor was the biggest supporter for a fast implementation and pressured CPLP. The agreement's Implementation date is not yet set.

At first, the Agreement established that its entrance into practice would only occur when all the countries of the CPLP had ratified it. But the African countries of Portuguese language have not ratified, possibly due to problems in implementing it. In the CPLP’s summit of 26–27 July 2004, an adjustment will prompt implementation in Brazil, Cape Verde and Portugal and its use can also be done in the other countries. The agreement will eliminate most "c" when "cc", "cc" or "ct"; and "p" when "pc", "pc" or "pt" from European Portuguese, the dieresis and accent marks in words ending in "eia" in Brazil and added some new minor spelling rules. And will accept dual accentuation in words like anonimo or anonimo, now depending on a person's accent.

Another agreement was made for the new words that will enter in the language.

[编辑] 參看

• List of tongue-twisters
• saudade — One of the ten non-English words that were voted hardest to translate in June 2004 by a British translation company
• English as she is spoke
• Portuguese in the United States

[编辑] 文學

Main articles: 葡語文學 — Camoens Prize

To English speakers, the most famous writer in the Portuguese language is the poet Luís Vaz de Camoes or Luís Vaz Camoens (1524–June 10, 1580), author of the epic poem, the Lusiad.

Several other authors and poets are also internationally known, such as: Eça de Queirós (1845–1900), the most famous Portuguese language novelist; Fernando Pessoa (1888—1935), one of the greatest poets in the language's history; Jorge Amado (1912—2001), a popular novelist; and José Saramago (born 1922) who was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1998.

[编辑] 註釋

• [1] First and Second with first language speakers, respectively. Only counting figures from countries in the table "Portuguese language countries and Territories". Considering second language speakers those people who are bilingual and use Portuguese as a second language.
• [2] Galicia is only included as a Portuguese language territory since many linguists understand both languages has being co-dialects. The government of Galicia regards Galician as a separate language.
• [3] A Fala is not recognized by the Spanish authorities to be a Portuguese dialect, although there have been attempts to consider it Galician, but the locals do not want to use the Galician orthography. A Fala differs very little from the neighbouring Portuguese dialect on the other side of the border, but it will probably be recognized (if it will be) as a separate language.