中国の水供給と衛生状態

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目次 1 概要 2 利用 3 サービスの質 4 水資源への連鎖 4.1 量 4.2 質 4.2.1 自然汚染 4.2.2 人為的な汚染 5 水の供給と衛生設備の責任 5.1 政策 5.1.1 水の供給と衛生設備 5.1.2 Water resources management 5.2 Service provision 5.2.1 Administrative divisions of China 5.2.2 Urban areas 5.2.3 Rural areas 5.2.4 NGOs 6 History and current developments 6.1 Massive investment program for wastewater treatment 6.2 Transition to commercial utilities 7 Efficiency 8 Tariffs and cost recovery 8.1 Urban areas 8.2 Rural areas 9 Investment and financing 10 関連項目 11 脚注 12 外部リンク

[編集] 概要

中国における水の供給と衛生状態は、その大規模な投資にもかかわらず、依然として低いレベルにある。信じ難いことだが、中国では3億人が改善された水資源を利用することができず、7億5千万人が改善した衛生設備を利用することができない。

その上、水不足、水質汚染も水供給の安定性に影響を及ぼしている。特に中国北部は乾燥しており、水が不足している。中国のある地域の地下水は高濃度のフッ化物とヒ素によって汚染されており、健康に影響を及ぼしている。また、バクテリアや化学物質による汚染も広がっている。

中国政府は水の供給と衛生設備の改善のため、大規模な投資を行っており、2006年から2010年の5ヵ年計画では年間60億米ドルまで増額されると予想されている。これらの投資の目的は特に地方の下水処理施設を改良するためのものである。しかし、多くの下水処理施設は適切に操作されておらず、水質汚染のレベルは高いままである。

都市部の水の供給と衛生設備の維持管理は4万以上の行政区が責任を負っており、地方部の水の供給の維持管理は共同体に基づく機関が責任を負っている。投資は中央政府と地方政府の両方から交付されている。多くの行政区は商業的公益事業を生み出し、独自の変化を遂げた中国経済の成長により、利用料金収入は増加した。

[編集] 利用

中国における改善された水の供給と衛生設備の利用は経済成長とともに過去20年において大きく増加した。WHOとUNICEFの共同監視プログラムによる2004年の世帯あたりの調査の統計では、改善された水の供給の利用者は77%、衛生設備の利用者は44%となっている。にもかかわらず、このことは、中国において未だ3億人が改善された水の供給を利用することができず、7億5千万人が改善された衛生設備を利用することができないことを意味している。改善された水の供給と衛生設備への利用人口は、インドなどに比べても未だに大きく劣ったままである。

それだけでなく、他の多くの途上国同様、都市と地方の大きな格差がある。例えば、中国の都市部の93%は改善された水の供給を利用できる一方、地方のそれは67%に過ぎない。衛生設備の利用はより深刻で、都市部では69%、地方はわずか28%である。^[1]

[編集] サービスの質

飲料水の糞による汚染は下痢やウイルス性の肝炎の原因になりうるため、他の途上国と同様、中国において重要な健康問題となっている。最近のUNICEFの調査によると、11の省で調査を行い、そのうちの半分以上の飲料水のサンプルが許容範囲を超える高濃度のバクテリアによって汚染されていることが分かった。^[2]

2004年の調査では下水処理施設では住宅の排水の46%を処理することができると見られていた。^[3]しかし、多くの下水処理施設は適切に機能していない。^[4]

[編集] 水資源への連鎖

[編集] 量

地下水の過剰採取とそれによる地下水の減少は中国で（特に北部で）大きな問題になっている。建設部の予備統計によると、中国国内の160ヵ所以上で地下水が過剰に採取され、毎年100億m³の地下水が枯渇している。その結果、50以上の都市で60000m²の土地が深刻な地盤沈下に直面している。^[5]

地表の水も枯渇することが多くなり、黄河は長年にわたって過剰採取されてきたため、もはや海に流れ着くことができなくなってしまった。

[編集] 質

飲料水に使われる地下水や地表水の品質は中国では大きな問題である。水は簡単に手に入るかもしれないが、人為的あるいは自然の汚染によって飲料水には適していない場合がある。

[編集] 自然汚染

中国の多くの帯水層における地下水はヒ素によって汚染されている。ヒ素中毒は汚染地下水を長く飲み続けることによって起こる。この現象は1950年代に初めて起こった。産業用及び農業用水の需要の増加により、井戸がより深く掘られ、現在では帯水層の水はしばしばヒ素を大量に含むようになった。その結果、ヒ素中毒の問題が浮上してきた。3万件以上の被害が報告され、約2500万人が高濃度のヒ素を含む飲料水を飲む危険にさらされている。^[6]

WHOによると、中国で2600万人以上が飲料水に含まれるフッ化物による歯のフッ素症にかかっているという。加えて、飲料水が原因と考えられる100万件以上の骨のフッ素症にかかっていると見られている。^[7] 地下水は高濃度のフッ化物によって汚染され、多くの人が汚染されていない水を入手することが困難な状況にある。

[編集] 人為的な汚染

河川の水は工場からの排水によって汚染され、地下水は農薬や肥料の浸透によってに汚染されている。

中国国家環境保護総局の2006年の調査によると、中国の河川の60%が飲料水に適さないほど汚染されているという。昨年は特に大きな変化はなかった。

主な河川の汚染は以下の通りである。

• 珠江と長江はまずまず良い水質を保っている。
• 遼河と淮河、黄河、松花江の水質は悪い。
• 北京と天津を流れる海河の汚染はかなりひどい。

しかし、国家環境保護総局によると大都市へ供給する飲料水の水質の大部分はよいとしている。^[8]

最近、中国では2005年11月に起こり、松花江が汚染された化学工場の爆発事故や2007年の5月に起きた無錫市にある太湖での藻類の大量発生事件を含め、多くの河川汚染事件が起こっている。2007年の世界銀行による報告によると、もし速やかかつ効果的なコントロールがなければ、汚染は省の境界線に関係なく広範囲に広がり、社会不安につながるだけでなく環境と経済にも影響を与えると警告している。もし、事故が発生すれば、環境や人間の健康に与える影響をコントロールすることが難しく、コストもかかるため、世界銀行は適切な政策や厳しい規制による汚染の予防を勧告している。 ^[9]

[編集] 水の供給と衛生設備の責任

[編集] 政策

政府は水の供給と衛生設備について単独の政策によっているわけではない。政策は複数の省によって起草され、水資源を管理することが2002年の水法によって定められている。

[編集] 水の供給と衛生設備

利用者による料金によって水の供給と衛生設備をすべてまかなうことが政府の方針であり、水道料金は計量によって決められる。^[10]

建設部は水と衛生設備の施設を規制すると同時に都市部の水と衛生設備のインフラストラクチャーの財政を監督する。「公益事業の市場化の加速」、「公益事業の利権運営」、「公益事業の規制強化についての意見」などいくつかの重要な政策に関する書類が刊行されている。しかし、公益事業やこの業界に参入する民間企業を規制する法律は何もない。^[11]

The Ministry of Health has attributions related to the promotion of rural sanitation.

[編集] Water resources management

The responsibility for water resources management is split between a number of entities at the national and local level. At the national level

• the Ministry of Water Resources is responsible for surface water management, with a focus on quantitative aspects,
• the State Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) has the responsibility to manage the quality of water resources, and
• groundwater falls within the realm of the Ministry of Land and Resources.^[12]

Nevertheless, the Ministry of Water Resources and its affiliated river basin commissions in all major river basins are key players in water resources management. The Water Law of 2002 emphasizes demand management and water quality protection and thus paves the way for a transition from a development phase focused almost exclusively on infrastructure development to a phase where more appropriate attention is being devoted to the management and protection of water resources. ^[13]

In addition to water resources management, the Ministry of Water Resources is also in charge of the construction of some major water infrastructure such as dams, embankments, irrigation infrastructure and bulk conveyors for municipal and industrial water supply. According to its website it is also responsible for the “provision of recommendations on economic regulation of water pricing, taxation, credit and financial affairs” as well as “coordination of capital construction of (…) water supply for townships and villages”, although in practice these functions seem to be carried out by other entities. ^[14]

[編集] Service provision

In order to understand the institutional responsibilities for water supply and sanitation in China, it may be helpful to provide a brief overview of the administrative divisions of China.

[編集] Administrative divisions of China

China is administratively divided into:

• 33 province-level (省級 shěngjí) divisions, including 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four municipalities, and two special administrative regions.
• 333 prefecture-level divisions (地級 dìjí)
• 2872 county-level divisions (県級 xiànjí) (sometimes called “districts”)
• 41,636 township-level (郷級 xiāngjí) divisions

Each of these administrative divisions normally comprises both urban and rural areas. Cities, of which there are 661 in China, thus do not seem to have a clearly defined administrative structure. Even in the case of the four largest cities (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin and Chongqing), which are municipalities with a province-like status, their territory also includes rural areas. The bulk of the cities are capitals of prefecture-level cities or county-level cities. Most county-level "cities" are too small to be considered cities and are rather towns.

[編集] Urban areas

Urban water supply is the responsibility of townships or – in the case of the four largest cities – of municipalities. The municipalities and many townships have financially and legally separate water companies that provide services. In smaller townships the town administration provides services directly.

To take an example of a very large city, in Shanghai the Water Division of the Shanghai Urban Construction Investment Development Corporation provides services. The Water Division includes a raw water company, five water companies, one sewage management company, three engineering companies and two construction companies. It serves 12 million people.

In Tianjin the Tianjin Water Supply Group provides services. It recently divested itself from numerous side businesses to focus on its core business. Since 1997 it has cooperated with international companies such as Vivendi in a bulk water supply Build-Operate-Transfer(BOT) contract.

[編集] Rural areas

In rural areas village committees, which are community-based organizations, provide services. Its members operate the systems without remuneration.

In terms of rural sanitation, human excreta are systematically used as manure for fertilising crops and vegetables. In many houses, the excreta of all family members are collected in buckets over the course of five to seven days, and then taken to the field and applied raw in the crops. The practice is an age old tradition and of enormous economic value in terms of agricultural production. ^[15]

Compared to the government’s major focus on urban wastewater treatment, rural sanitation is not very high on the government’s agenda despite the well-known negative health impacts of inadequate hygiene and sanitation practices.

[編集] NGOs

There is little information on activities by NGOs in water supply and sanitation in China. An Association for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation provides training, information exchange, technical assistance and undertakes research.

In terms of foreign NGOs, the NGO Plan, for example, works in China. It is known for having introduced for the first time the concept of Community Led Total Sanitation in China in Puchang County in Shaanxi in 2005. ^[16]

[編集] History and current developments

[編集] Massive investment program for wastewater treatment

In the 1980s the country’s first municipal wastewater treatment plant was built in the city of Nanjing. ^[17]

China engaged in what possibly is the largest wastewater treatment investment program in history. However, in the rush to construct planning mistakes were made. Demand was overestimated, the construction of sewerage lagged behind the construction of treatment plants, designs were sometimes inappropriate, there was no requirement for pre-treatment of industrial effluents thus affecting the effectiveness of treatment processes, and the sites chosen for the first priority investments within a river basin were not always those where the highest impact could have been achieved in terms of improving river water quality.^[18] As a result, many plants are underutilized or poorly functioning. According to the Ministry of Construction, more than 50 wastewater treatment plants in more than 30 cities operated at only 30 percent of their capacity or did not even come into operation.^[19] Consequently, the impact of the investment program on the water quality in rivers and coastal waters has been limited.

In the 1990s the first BOT contracts were signed for wastewater treatment plants. More than 200 wastewater treatment plants were built with some form of private sector participation in their financing and/or management, usually using the BOT formula. Early BOTs saw governments implementing the process without the benefit of financial, legal, and technical advisers, finding to their chagrin that the process becomes more complex in the absence of expert knowledge. Learning from the experience of past BOTs in the sector, local governments sought expert advice on bidding and public tender. ^[20]

In about 2000 for the first time a BOT water project (Chengdu No. 6 Water Supply Plant) was awarded on the basis of transparent international competitive bidding, with support from the ADB. ^[21]

From 2001 to 2004 the number of municipal wastewater treatment plants increased from 452 to 708 and the cities served increased from about 200 to 364 out of 661 cities in China; and the percentage of wastewater receiving treatment increased from 35% to 45%. The number of cities that charge sanitation tariffs has increased from 300 to 475.^[22]

By 2010 the government wants to achieve a level of 60% for treatment of municipal wastewater. In 2006 the rate of urban wastewater treatment already reached 57% according to the State Environmental Protection Agency.^[23]

During the 1990s municipal and industrial water use actually declined because of low increases of connection rates to utilities because of underestimation of the importance of small-scale water providers,^[24] increased tariffs, increased metering, industrial restructuring, measures to increase the efficiency of water use in industries, as well as due to water scarcity and drought. Many Chinese water and wastewater companies have overcapacities and are in financial difficulties because the revenues are insufficient to cover the servicing of the debt contracted to build the oversized infrastructure.^[25]

[編集] Transition to commercial utilities

In 2002 the Ministry of Construction issued a policy paper on the commercialization of public utilities. Subsequently, in October 2003 the central government decided that state-owned enterprises had to separated from Ministries and/or provincial governments and had to be commercialized. ^[26]

[編集] Efficiency

Most water and sanitation utilities in China have a low labor productivity and are overstaffed. For example, many utilities in small towns in Henan province have more than 20 employees per 1000 connections, while international good practice is less than 4 employees per 1000 connections. In Chengdu the utility employed 34 employees per 1000 connections, while in Shanghai the ratio was less than 6 employees per 1000 connections.

Leakage losses in the distribution network are high in some cities. For example, average non revenue water in small towns in Henan province is 38%, while international good practice is less than 30%.^[27] However, in Chengdu non-revenue water was estimated to be only 18% and in Shanghai it was estimated to be only 16%.^[28]

[編集] Tariffs and cost recovery

[編集] Urban areas

Until the 1980s urban water tariffs in China were very low and sewer tariffs were practically unknown.

This has changed substantially since the adoption of National Guidelines on Urban Water Tariffs in 1988, which called for increased cost recovery and for the introduction of sewer tariffs. Subsequently water tariffs have been increased substantially in many Chinese cities, particularly in the north where water is scarcest.^[29] However, according to the Ministry of Construction, water tariff reforms have not been effective enough to offer the necessary incentives to save water. While many cities now have sewer tariffs, in 2005 there were more than 150 cities across the country where no wastewater treatment fee was collected.^[30]

In Tianjin, where the water tariffs had not been raised once between 1949 and 1985, it has been raised eight times until 2006. As a result, cost recovery has improved significantly. For example, in the province of Henan most small town utilities recover operation and maintenance costs and report modest operating profits. ^[31]

In Chengdu the average water tariff was US$ 0.14/m3 in 2001. Despite the relatively low water tariff the utility's revenues were twice as high as recurrent costs, allowing for a significant share of self-financing.^[32] In Shanghai the average water tariff was only US$ 0.10/m2 in 2001 and production costs are higher, so that the utility did not fully recover its recurrent cost and had an operating loss.^[33]

Metering in urban areas is now relatively widespread.

Urban tariffs are apparently approved by Price Bureaus (not clear at what level of government they are located), after considerable prior negotiation at the local level.

[編集] Rural areas

In rural areas, according to the World Bank users pay about 75% of investment costs and 100% of operation and maintenance costs. ^[34] Rural tariffs do not need to be approved.

[編集] Investment and financing

To be added: Annual total level of investment (urban and rural, water and sanitation)

Investment in wastewater treatment has been estimated at 15bn Yuan (less than US$ 2bn) annually during the previous Plan.^[35] It is supposed to increase to 66bn Yuan (more than US$ 6bn) annually during the 11th Five-Year-Plan (2006-2010).^[36]

In terms of financing, matching grants from the national and provincial government to townships are common. The level of self-financing still remains low. Debt financing is limited by stringent national rules on the contracting of debt by local government. As a result, BOTs are a popular financing mechanism. Under BOTs private entities undertake investments and recover their costs through fees for bulk water sale or wastewater treatment charged to the utilities. While the government is formally not indebted, the charges for the services are de facto similar to debt service charges.

[編集] 関連項目

• 中国の環境問題
• 中国の水危機
• en:Water resources of China

[編集] 脚注

[編集] 外部リンク

• Ministry of Water Resources
• ADB: China’s Water Challenge