Nerva

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Nerva
Emperor of the Roman Empire
Bust of emperor Nerva, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome
Reign	September 18, 96 – 27 January 98
Full name	Marcus Cocceius Nerva
Born	November 8, 30(30-11-08)
Birthplace	Narni
Died	27 January 98 (aged 67)
Place of death	Gardens of Sallust, Rome
Buried	Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome
Predecessor	Domitian
Successor	Trajan
Issue	Trajan (adoptive)
Dynasty	Nervan-Antonine
Father	Marcus Cocceius Nerva
Mother	Sergia Plautilla

Marcus Cocceius Nerva (November 8, 30 – January 27, 98) was a Roman Emperor who briefly reigned from 96 until his death in 98. Nerva acceded to this position at the advanced age of 65, after a lifetime of imperial service under emperor Nero and the rulers of the Flavian dynasty, Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. Under Nero, he was a member of the imperial entourage and played a vital part in exposing the Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Later, as a loyalist to the Flavians, he attained consulships in 71 and 90 during the reigns of Vespasian and Domitian respectively.

On September 18, 96, Domitian was assassinated in a palace conspiracy involving members of the Praetorian Guard and several of his freedmen. The same day, Nerva was declared emperor by the Roman Senate. As the new ruler of the Roman Empire, he vowed to restore liberties which had been curtailed during the autocratic government of Domitian, however Nerva's brief reign was marred by financial difficulties and his inability to assert his authority over the Roman army. A revolt by the Praetorian Guard in October of 97 all but forced him to adopt the more popular Marcus Ulpius Traianus—commonly known as Trajan—as his heir and successor. After not quite eighteen months in office, Nerva died of natural causes on January 27 98. Upon his death he was succeeded and deified by his adopted son Trajan.

Although much of his life remains obscure, Nerva was considered a wise and moderate emperor by ancient historians, a view which was later popularized by the 18th century scholar Edward Gibbon, who termed the rule of Nerva and his four successors as that of the Five Good Emperors, following similar comments by Machiavelli in the early 16th century. By adopting Trajan as his heir, Nerva is said to have established a tradition of succession through adoption among the emperors which followed. Recent historians, however, have revised these opinions, since those adoptions only took place when and because none of them had living male issue or the adoptees were otherwise their relatives by ancestry and / or marriage or even related to their previous ancestors.

[edit] Early career

[edit] Family

Marcus Cocceius Nerva was born at Narni, c. 80 km north of Rome,^[1] to the family of Marcus Cocceius Nerva and Sergia Plautilla. Ancient sources give the date as either 30 or 35.^[2] Like Vespasian, the founder of the Flavian dynasty, he was a member of the Italian nobility rather than one of the elite of Rome.^[3]

Members of his family had held high office; his great-grandfather, also named Marcus Cocceius Nerva, was consul in 36 BC,^[4] and his grandfather (also named Marcus Cocceius Nerva) had been in the imperial entourage of Tiberius at the time of Nerva's birth.^[5] He was connected with the Julio-Claudian dynasty from his mother's side through his uncle Octavius Laenas, who had married the great-granddaughter of Tiberius Rubellia Bassa.^[3] In addition Nerva's sister may have married emperor Otho's brother Titianus.^[6]

[edit] Public service

Not much of Nerva's early career is recorded, but it appears he did not pursue the usual administrative or military career. According to Tacitus he was praetor-elect during the reign of emperor Nero in 65.^[7] He played a successful part in exposing the Pisonian conspiracy, for which he earned triumphal honors and had his statues placed throughout the palace.^[7] Both Nerva and Vespasian were part of Nero's entourage during this time, and Nerva may have acted as a guardian to the young Domitian when Vespasian was sent to the east in 67 to quell the Jewish rebellion.^[8]

Following the death of Nero in 68, Nerva remained faithful to the Flavians during the civil war of 69—the so called Year of the Four Emperors—which saw the rapid succession and fall of the emperors Galba, Otho and Vitellius until the accession of Vespasian on December 21. For his loyalty, Nerva was rewarded with his first consulship in 71,^[9] and he continued his services under Vespasian's sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96). In the spring of 89, the governor of Germania Superior Lucius Antonius Saturninus led a rebellion against Domitian involving the Legio XIIII Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax.^[10] It has been suggested that Nerva was instrumental in alerting the emperor to this conspiracy, for which he was rewarded with his second consulship in 90.^[9] For Domitian, however, the revolt had a lasting impact on the final years of his reign. His administration became increasingly paranoid and ultimately spiralled into terror.^[11]

[edit] Emperor

[edit] Accession

Bust of emperor Domitian. Capitoline Museums, Rome.

On September 18, 96, Domitian was assassinated by a palace conspiracy involving high ranking members of the Praetorian Guard and several of his own freedmen.^[12] The Fasti Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that the same day, Marcus Cocceius Nerva was proclaimed emperor.^[13] The manner of his accession however, has been a topic of considerable debate.^[14] While Nerva had previously held high offices and was a well-connected member of the Flavian government, much of his career was spent out of the public light, and none of it pointed to the possibility of attaining the imperial power. It has been suggested that Nerva took part in the conspiracy against Domitian, or at the very least had advance knowledge of the plot.^[14] The historian Cassius Dio writes that prior to the assassination, the conspirators discussed the matter of succession with various candidates they deemed viable, one of which was Nerva, who was approached not only on account of his administrative qualities, but also because they claimed he had recently fallen under suspicion of Domitian, and would have nothing further to lose if he took part in the plot.^[15] While his involvement in the conspiracy may never be ascertained,^[16] modern historians now believe Nerva was proclaimed emperor on the sole initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke.^[13] Although he appeared to be an unlikely candidate on account of his age and weak health, Nerva was considered a safe choice precisely because he was old and childless.^[17] Furthermore, he had close connections with the Flavian dynasty and commanded the respect of a substantial part of the Senate. Nerva had seen the anarchy which had resulted from the death of Nero in 69; he knew that to hesitate even for a few hours could lead to violent civil conflict. Rather than decline the invitation and risk revolts, he accepted.^[18]

Following the accession of Nerva as emperor, the Senate passed damnatio memoriae on Domitian: his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records.^[19][20] In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva. This allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material.^[21] In addition, the vast palace which Domitian had erected on the Palatine Hill, known as the Flavian Palace, was renamed the "House of the People", and Nerva himself took up residence in Vespasian's former villa, the Gardens of Sallust.^[22]

[edit] Administration

Last remaining columns from the largely blind peristyle surrounding a temple to Minerva, located at the heart of the Forum of Nerva. The visible door frame is not an original element but rather one of the many modifications suffered during the Middle Ages.

The change of government was a breath of relief for the Roman Senate, whose senators had suffered under the terrors of Domitian's regime. As an immediate gesture of goodwill towards his supporters, Nerva publicly swore that no senators would be put to death as long as he remained in office.^[23] He called an end to trials based on treason, released those who had been imprisoned under these charges, and granted amnesty to many who had been exiled.^[20] All properties which had been confiscated by Domitian were returned to their respective families.^[20] Nerva also sought to involve the Senate in his government, but this was not entirely successful. He continued to rely largely on friends and advisors that were known and trusted, and by maintaining friendly relations with the pro-Domitianic faction of the Senate, he incurred hostility which may have been the cause for at least one conspiracy against his life.^[24][25]

Having been proclaimed emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, a number of measures had to be introduced in order to gain support among the Roman populace. As was custom by this time, a change of emperor was expected to bring with it a generous payment of gifts and money to the people and the army. Accordingly, a congiarium of 75 denarii per head was bestowed upon the citizens, while the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard received a donativum which may have amounted to as much as 5000 denarii per person.^[26] This was followed by a string of economic reforms intended to alleviate the burden of taxation from the most needy Romans.^[27] To the poorest, Nerva granted allotments of land worth up to 60 million sesterces.^[23] He exempted parents and their children from a 5% inheritance tax, and he made loans to Italian landowners on the condition that they pay interest of 5% to their municipality to support the children of needy families; alimentary schemes which were later expanded by Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.^[28] Furthermore, numerous taxes were remitted and privileges granted to Roman provinces.^[26]

Before long, Nerva's expenses strained the economy of Rome and, although perhaps not ruinous to the extent once suggested by Syme,^[29] necessitated the formation of a special commission of economy to drastically reduce expenditures.^[30] The most superfluous religious sacrifices, games and horse races were abolished, while new income was generated from Domitian's former possessions, including the auctioning of ships, estates, and even furniture.^[23] Large amounts of money were obtained from Domitian's silver and gold statues, and Nerva forbade that similar images be made in his honor.^[20]

Because he reigned only briefly, Nerva's public works were few, instead completing projects which had been initiated under Flavian rule. This included extensive repairs to the Roman road system and the expansion of the aqueducts.^[31] The latter program was headed by the former consul Sextus Julius Frontinus, who helped to put an end to abuses and later published a significant work on Rome's water supply, De Aquis Urbis Romae.^[32] The only major landmarks constructed under Nerva were a granary, known as the Horrea Nervae,^[33] and a small Imperial Forum begun by Domitian, which linked the Forum of Augustus to the Temple of Peace.^[34] Little remains, partly because the Via dei Fori Imperiali cuts across it.

[edit] Crisis of succession

Roman aureus struck under Nerva, c. 97. The reverse reads Concordia Exercituum, symbolyzing the unity between the emperor and the Roman army with two clasped hands over an army standard.

Despite Nerva's measures to remain popular with the Senate and the Roman people, support for Domitian remained strong in the army, which had called for his deification immediately after the assassination.^[19] In an attempt to appease the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard, Nerva had dismissed their prefect Titus Petronius Secundus—one of the chief conspirators against Domitian—and replaced him by a former commander, Casperius Aelianus.^[35] Likewise, the generous donativum bestowed upon the soldiers following his accession was expected to swiftly silence any protests against the violent regime change. The Praetorians considered these measures insufficient, however, and demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused.^[36] Continued dissatisfaction with this state of affairs would ultimately lead to the gravest crisis of Nerva's reign.

While the swift transfer of power following Domitian's death had prevented a civil war from erupting, Nerva's position as an emperor soon proved too vulnerable, and his benign nature turned into a reluctance to assert his authority. Upon his accession, he had ordered a halt to treason trials, but at the same time he still allowed the prosecution of informers by the Senate. This measure led to chaos, as everyone acted in his own interests while trying to settle scores with personal enemies, leading the consul Fronto to remark that "it was bad to have an emperor under whom nobody was permitted to do anything, but worse to have one under whom everybody was permitted to do everything."^[20] Early in 97, a conspiracy led by senator Calpurnius Crassus failed, but once again Nerva refused to put the conspirators to death, much to the disapproval of the Senate.^[37][38]

The situation was further aggravated by the absence of a clear successor, made more pressing because of Nerva's old age and sickness.^[39] He had no natural children of his own and only distant relatives, who were unsuited for political office. A successor would have to be chosen from among the governors or generals in the Empire and it appears that, by 97, Nerva was considering to adopt Publius Cornelius Nigrinus, the powerful governor of Syria.^[40] This was covertly opposed by those who supported the more popular military commander Marcus Ulpius Traianus, commonly known as Trajan, a general of the armies at the German frontier.^[40]

In October 97 these tensions came to a head when the Praetorian Guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage.^[25] He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians.^[41] Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius, Domitian's former chamberlain, were sought out and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair.^[25] He realized that his position was no longer tenable without the support of an heir who had the approval of both the army and the people.^[35][42] Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor,^[25] and with this decision all but abdicated.^[43][44] Trajan was formally bestowed with the title of Caesar and shared the consulship with Nerva in 98:

Contrary to the view here popularized by Cassius Dio however, Nerva had in fact little choice with regards to his successor. Faced with a major crisis, he desperately needed the support of a man who could restore his damaged reputation.^[42] The only candidate with sufficient military experience, consular ancestry, and connections was Trajan.^[35] Likewise, Edward Gibbon's assertion that Nerva hereby established a tradition of succession through adoption among the Five Good Emperors has found little support among modern historians.^[46]

[edit] Death and legacy

Roman aureus struck under Trajan, c. 115. The reverse commemorates both Trajan's natural father, Marcus Ulpius Traianus (right), and his adoptive father, the Deified Nerva (left).

On January 1, 98, at the start of his fourth consulship, Nerva suffered a stroke during a private audience.^[47] Shortly thereafter he was struck by a fever and died at his villa in the Gardens of Sallust, on January 27.^[48][49] He was deified by the Senate,^[48] and his ashes were laid to rest in the Mausoleum of Augustus.^[50] Nerva was succeeded without incident by his adopted son Trajan, who was greeted by the Roman populace with much enthusiasm. According to Pliny the Younger, Trajan dedicated a temple in honour of Nerva,^[51] yet no trace of it has ever been found; nor was a commemorative series of coins for the Deified Nerva issued until ten years after his death. According to Cassius Dio, however, the Guard prefect responsible for the mutiny against Nerva, Casperius Aelianus, was 'dismissed' upon Trajan's accession.^[52]

Due to the lack of written sources on this period, much of Nerva's life has remained obscure. The most substantial surviving account of the reign of Nerva was written by the 2nd century historian Cassius Dio. His Roman History, which spans nearly a millennium, from the arrival of Aeneas in Italy until the year 229, was composed more than hundred years after Nerva had died. Further details are added by an abridged biography from the Epitome de Caesaribus, a work alleged to have been authored by the 3rd century historian Aurelius Victor. A more comprehensive text, presumed to describe the life of Nerva in closer detail, is the Histories, by the contemporary historian Tacitus. The Histories is an account of the history of Rome covering three decades from the suicide of emperor Nero in 69 until the death of Domitian in 96. Unfortunately, a substantial part of the work has been lost, with only the first five books covering the Year of the Four Emperors remaining. In the introduction to his biography of Gnaeus Julius Agricola however, Tacitus speaks highly of Nerva, describing his reign as "the dawn of a most happy age, [when] Nerva Caesar blended things once irreconcilable, sovereignty and freedom".^[53]

The surviving histories speak equally positive of Nerva's brief reign, although none offer a substantial commentary on his policies. Both Cassius Dio and Aurelius Victor emphasize his wisdom and moderation,^[54][23] with Dio commending his decision to adopt Trajan as his heir.^[45] These views were later popularized by the 18th century historian Edward Gibbon in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Gibbon considered Nerva the first of the Five Good Emperors, five successive rulers under whom the Roman Empire "was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of wisdom and virtue" from 96 until 180. Nevertheless, even Gibbon notes that, compared to his successors, Nerva may have lacked the necessary qualifications for a successful reign:

Nerva as Jupiter. From the Pushkin Museum, Moscow.

Modern history has expanded upon this sentiment, characterizing Nerva as a well-intentioned but weak and ineffectual ruler. The Roman Senate enjoyed renewed liberties under his rule, but Nerva's mismanagement of the state finances and lack of authority over the army ultimately brought Rome near the edge of a significant crisis.^[26] The mutiny led by Casperius Aelianus was never intended as a coup, but a calculated attempt to put pressure on the emperor.^[35] The adoption of Trajan expanded his power base with a respected, reliable general as his successor. Murison concludes that Nerva's real talents were in fact ill-suited to the emperorship:

His place in Roman history is therefore summarized as a necessary, if tumultuous stop-gap before the Trajanic-Antonine dynasties.^[17] It is a fact of irony that even the only major public work completed during his reign, the Forum of Nerva, ultimately became known as the Forum Transitorium, or transitional forum.^[57]

Today statues which commemorate Nerva can be found at Gloucester, England at the entrance to Southgate Street, and at his alleged birthplace Narni in Italy, at Cocceio Nerva street.^[58][59]

[edit] Notes

[edit] References

• Murison, Charles Leslie (2003). "M. Cocceius Nerva and the Flavians" (subscription required). Transactions of the American Philological Association 133 (1): pp. 147–157. 
• Syme, Ronald (1930). "The Imperial Finances under Domitian, Nerva and Trajan". The Journal of Roman Studies 20: pp. 55–70. 

[edit] Further reading

• Grainger, John D. (2003). Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28917-3. 
• Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-04229-1. 
• Syme, Ronald (1958). Tacitus. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814327-3. 
• Syme, Ronald (1983). "Domitian: The Last Years". Chiron 13: 121–146. 

[edit] External links

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Nerva

[edit] Primary sources

• Cassius Dio, Roman History Book 68, English translation
• Aurelius Victor (attrib.), Epitome de Caesaribus Chapter 12, English translation

[edit] Secondary material

• Narnia web links, International links', International links from Narnia.it web site
• Wend, David (1998). Nerva (96-98 A.D.). De Imperatoribus Romanis. Retrieved on 2007-08-11.