Sweden during World War II
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| History of Sweden |
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Scandinavian prehistory (-800) |
| Topical |
| Military history |
The policy of Sweden during World War II was to remain neutral. Swedish neutrality had been the policy for more than a century, since the end of the Napoleonic Wars.
When hostilities began on 1 September 1939, the fate of Sweden was unclear. Eventually, even though 20 nations had held a policy of neutrality in September 1939, only five European nations were capable of sustaining a policy of neutrality throughout the entire war (the others being Ireland, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland). Sweden was one of those countries able to maintain this delicate balance and avoid engagement in the European Theatre. Sweden owed this maintenance of neutrality to its location in the Scandinavian Peninsula, its long-held neutral stance in international relations, a dedicated military build-up and an unpredictable course of events which went in its favour. Another important factor was the concessions the Swedish government made to Germany, for example allowing the Wehrmacht to use Swedish railways to transport an infantry division, along with war material freight, i.e., howitzers, tanks and anti-aircraft weapons and associated ammunition, from Norway to Finland, and to transport soldiers on leave between Norway and Germany.
Svensk can mean both "Swedish" and "Swede" while tiger could be read as either the animal or "keeps his mouth shut," giving the poster the double meaning "A Swedish Tiger" and "A Swede keeps his mouth shut." Comparable to "Loose lips sink ships." The Tiger is colored as the Swedish flag
[edit] Military balance in the Baltic
Sweden's long-standing policy of neutrality was severely tested on many occasions during the 1930s. The challenges came from a strongly rejuvenated, nationalistic Germany. From 1919 until 1935, Sweden had been an active supporter of the League of Nations. Most of Sweden's energy in the international arena had been directed towards preservation of the League.
The Swedish non-allied policy was founded on the assumption that there were two opposing powers in the Baltic, Germany and the Soviet Union. As they have to guard against each other, they could only deploy minor forces against Sweden or other non-allied countries which made defence of a small country feasible. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact that was signed in the end of August 1939, upset this balance.
[edit] Pre-war preparations
Beginning in 1936, the Swedish government regularly increased its defence budget to strengthen its military preparedness as the international situation was seen to worsen. Military spending went from $37 million in 1936, to $50 million in 1937, to $58.575 million in 1938, and then increased over fivefold to $322.325 million in 1939. During the war itself, military spending peaked in 1942 at $527.575 million.
During European hostilities, Swedish industry had to supply an increased share of domestic goods, due to the German blockade of the North Sea, as well as to satisfy the vastly increased demand for armaments. Before the war, annual production of armaments typically totalled tens of millions of Swedish kronor, but during the war, output exceeded SEK 1 billion (US$240 million).
Not only was the Swedish government buying material to strengthen its defences, it began drafting conscripts. On May 6, 1938, the government called up the entire conscript class of 1923, then at the age of 35, for short periods of training. In addition to this, the Swedish Cabinet ordered that one quarter of the 1938 military draft intake be retained for further training.
In 1940, the Swedish Home Guard (Hemvärnet), was created. Its units comprised small groups of former soldiers who were equipped with rifles, machine guns, ammunition, medicine and uniforms. They had the option to buy additional materials such as skis, sweaters and marching boots. The Swedish Women's Voluntary Defence Service, or Lottorna, had been created in 1924.
While arming itself, Sweden felt that it was necessary to articulate and enforce its policy of neutrality. Prime Minister Per Albin Hansson stated shortly before the Second World War began: "Friendly with all other nations and strongly linked to our neighbors, we look on no one as our enemy. There is no place in the thoughts of our people for aggression against any other country, and we note with gratitude assurances from others that they have no wish to disturb our peace, our freedom, or our independence. The strengthening of our defence preparations serves merely to underline our fixed determination to keep our country outside the conflicts among others and, during such conflicts, to safeguard the existence of our people." Other members of the Swedish government expressed similar sentiments.
Georg Homin, a captain on the General Staff, said, "without a defensive force we cannot follow any policy of our own, our declarations become merely empty words, and we leave the country's fate to chance or to the decision of others. With a defence as strong as Swedish conditions allow we secure for ourselves the basis of a continued independent Swedish policy."
[edit] The outbreak of wars
After the outbreak of war between Germany and Poland, France and Britain in September 1939, Sweden declared itself a neutral country.
At the outbreak of the Finnish Winter War in November 1939 Sweden declared itself not neutral, but ”non-belligerent”. This allowed the country to send volunteers and weapons to Finland. Sweden and Finland also lay minefields in the Sea of Åland to deter Soviet submarines from entering the Gulf of Bothnia. [1]
[edit] The defence of Finland
When the Soviet Union attacked Finland in 1939, many Swedes favoured some sort of involvement in the conflict, both on a humanitarian and a military basis. Sweden's interest in Finland lay in the fact that Finland had been an integrated part of Sweden for more than six hundred years, Sweden losing control of the eastern provinces in 1809. Despite several pleas from the Finnish government, the Swedish government chose not to engage militarily when the Red Army advanced during the Winter War. However, Sweden was declared non-belligerent rather than neutral during the conflict and did accept that as many as 8,000 Swedes voluntarily went to Finland. The Swedish government and public sent food, clothing, medicine, weapons and ammunition to aid the Finns during the Winter War, but avoided official military involvement. The military aid included: [2]
- 135,402 rifles, 347 machine guns, 450 light machine guns with 50,013,300 rounds of small arms ammunition.
- 144 field guns, 100 anti aircraft guns and 92 anti-armour guns with 301,846 shells.
- 300 sea mines and 500 depth-charges.
- 17 fighter aircraft 5 light bombers and 3 reconnaissance aircraft. 12 of Sweden's most modern fighter aircraft (Gloster Gladiator) was flown by Swedish pilots [2]. This was one third of the Swedish fighter force at the time. In addition, some 70,000 Finnish children were sent to safety from Finland to Sweden during the 1940s [3].
[edit] Press freedom and public perceptions
The public's sentiments were widely published in the Swedish press, causing many protests from the German government and prompting the Swedish government to censor areas of the press on a limited basis. In Sweden, the press fell under the control of several councils, despite contemporary claims that the Swedish press was free. The Swedish Government War Information Board determined what military information was released and what information remained secret. The Swedish Press Council served as a "promotion of good relations between the press and the public authorities and to serve as an instrument of self-discipline for the press." The Press Council issued warnings, public or confidential, to those whom it considered were abusing the freedom of the press.
The Government was concerned that its neutrality might be compromised should the press be too vocal in its opinions. Both the Press Council and the Information Board issued comments such as "As far as the material received permits, attempts should be made not to give prominence to the reports of one side at the expense of the other", or "headlines, whether on the billboards or in the newspapers, should be worded in such a way as to avoid favouring one side or the other", and finally, "editorials and surveys as well as articles discussing military events or the military situation, should be strictly objective...".
During the war the Communist and Nazi press was de facto banned from distribution. A ban on transport of the concerned newspapers was imposed (since printing of the newspapers is protected in the Swedish constitution, this was a means to avoid openly breaking the constitutional limits). There are some indications that these bans were demonstration politics designed to impress the Germans while not really restricting the work of the media. [4]
[edit] Foreign trade
A vital factor in Sweden's relations with the great powers, particularly Germany and Britain, was trade. Prior to the war Sweden had important trade connections with both countries. If Sweden had shown preference to either side, it would have threatened its neutrality and even its independence. Maintaining such trading partnerships was not only important politically, but in an economic sense as well. For example, in 1938 24 per cent of Sweden's total exports went to Britain and another 18 per cent to Germany.
The outbreak of war greatly affected trade with both countries. At the beginning of the war, agreements were signed between Sweden and the two great powers in order to sustain these vital export markets. However, when Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in April 1940, coupled with a German blockade of the North Sea, Sweden's trade with Britain was cut by a total of 70 per cent. Within the blockade trade with Germany increased, until 37 per cent of Sweden's exports were shipped to Germany.
[edit] Potential Allied invasion
(Borders as of 1920–1940.)
Hitler wrote in a letter to Sweden's King Gustaf V, dated April 24, 1940; "I have no doubt that our action (the invasion of Norway and Denmark), which at the last moment forestalled the execution of the Allied plan and which under all circumstances will stop France and England from getting a foothold in Scandinavia, will have consequences which will be a blessing to the Scandinavian peoples."[citation needed]
The German industry was heavily dependent on Swedish iron-ore. The Allies had intended to use the Soviet November 30, 1939, attack on Finland as a cover for seizing the important Swedish ore fields in the north, and the Norwegian harbors through which it was shipped to Germany.
The plan was to get Norwegian and Swedish permission to send an expeditionary force to Finland across northern Norway and Sweden, ostensibly to help the Finns. Once in place they were however to proceed to take control of the harbors and mines, occupying cities such as Gävle and Luleå and shutting down the German access to Swedish ore, presenting Norway and Sweden with a fait acompli. Realizing the danger of Allied/German occupation and of the war being waged on their territory, both the Swedes and the Norwegians refused the transit requests.[5] Meanwhile, the Germans having realized the Allied threat, were making plans for a possible invasion of Norway in order to protect their strategic supply lines.
The Altmark Incident of February 16, 1940, convinced Hitler that the Allies would not respect the Norwegian neutrality, and he ordered the plans for an invasion hastened.
The Scandinavian reluctance to allow Allied troops on their territory halted the original Allied plan for using aid to Finland as a pretext for moving in troops, but on March 12 the Allies decided to try a "semi-peaceful" invasion nevertheless. Troops were to be landed in Norway, and proceed into Sweden to capture the Swedish mines. However, if serious military resistance was encountered they were not to press the issue. However, Finland sued for peace on March 12, so the revised version of this plan had to be abandoned too.
The Germans were partly aware of the Allied planning, they intercepted radio traffic showing that Allied transport groups were being readied, and a few days later messages that the Allies had had to abandon their plan and redeploy their forces.
Plans for the German invasion of Norway continued since Hitler feared the Allies were nevertheless going to launch their own invasion sooner or later, and he was right although he was unaware of the actual plans. April 9 was set as the date of Operation Weserübung, the German attack on Norway.
The Allied plan had 2 parts. Operation Wilfred, and Plan R 4. In operation Wilfred, to take place on April 5 (but delayed to April 8), the Norwegian territorial waters were to be mined, violating Norwegian neutrality. This would force the ships carrying ore to Germany to travel outside the protection of Norwegian territorial waters and thus accessible to the British navy. It was hoped that this would provoke a German military reaction. As soon as the Germans would react, under "Plan R 4", 18,000 Allied troops were to land in Narvik, closing the railroad to Sweden. Other cities to be captured were Trondheim and Bergen. The first ship with Allied troops were to start the journey a few hours after the mine laying. On April 8 a Royal Navy detachment led by HMS Renown mined Norwegian waters in operation Wilfred, but German troops were already on their way, and the original "Plan R 4" was no longer feasible. The Allies had however provided Hitler with an invasion excuse.[6] Although "Plan R 4" could not be executed as planned, Allied troops were swiftly sent to Norway and were able to fight alongside the Norwegians quite successfully against the Germans. See the Allied campaign in Norway. However, the successful German campaign against France and the low countries led to an Allied troop re-deployment. Allied troops were evacuated from Norway by June 8, 1940.
[edit] The 1941 "Midsummer Crisis"
After the German invasion of the Soviet Union in early summer of 1941; Operation Barbarossa, the Germans in June 22 asked Sweden for some military concessions. The Swedish government granted these requests for logistical support. (mainly German troop transports between Finland, occupied Norway, occupied Denmark) In Sweden the political deliberations surrounding this decision has been called the "midsummer crisis". Recent research by Carl-Gustaf Scott argues however that there never was a "crisis", and that
- "the crisis was created in historical hindsight in order to protect the political legacy of the Social Democratic Party and its leader Per Albin Hansson."[3]
[edit] After 1943
From 1943 onwards, Germany began to meet with a series of military reverses after its losses at Stalingrad and elsewhere. Germany was forced into a more defensive position, while Allied forces met with greater success on the battlefield, such as in North Africa. It was apparent to Sweden that Germany was unlikely to win. Prior to 1943, Sweden's policy of neutrality was largely under the influence of German politics, and the course of events that involved Germany. Following August and September 1943, Sweden was able to resist German demands and soften its stance to Allied pressure. However, despite Germany's defensive posture, Sweden was in constant fear that "the whole course of events suggested that the unexpected might happen," an attitude that was sustained until the very end of the war. With Germany's weakening position came stronger demands from the Allies. The Allies pushed for Sweden to abandon its trade with Germany, and to stop all German troop transit over Swedish soil. Sweden accepted payments from the Allies to compensate for loss of income, but continued to sell steel and machined parts to Nazi Germany (at inflated "smugglers' rates").[4]
[edit] Sweden's Humanitarian Effort
In 1943, Sweden received nearly all of Denmark's 8000 Jews. With the dissolution of the Danish government in the summer of 1943, the German authorities had decided to deport the Danish Jewish population to concentration camps. However, the Danes successfully transported all but 450 of the Jews to Sweden in an unprecedented rescue effort. There, they were granted asylum, and taken in by Swedes. Many stayed in Sweden after the war. Sweden also received refugees from Finland and Norway, including some of Norway's Jews who were able to escape. This, as well as the protection of Sweden's own Jewish population, was made possible due to Sweden's neutrality.
Neutrality also made it possible for Sweden to have access to Germany, which was not only useful to Swedish intelligence but also to the Allies. King Gustav V attempted to use his diplomatic connections to German leaders to convince them to treat the Jews more humanely, as evidenced through their correspondence, though he had little influence. Count Folke Bernadotte, a relative of the royal family, was able to communicate with the German government, and relay information back to Sweden, as did other diplomats. He also contributed to saving 15,000 prisoners from concentration camps, including many Jews, as did the famous diplomat Raoul Wallenberg, who saved perhaps 100,000 Hungarian Jews.
Also, many Swedish nobles used personal connections and wealth to take in, and find temporary Swedish homes for children from neighbouring countries (mainly Denmark and Finland).
After the war, Sweden sent up to SEK 1 billion (US$240 million) in aid to its neighbours to help them recover from the destruction suffered in the war.
[edit] Sweden's concessions to Nazi Germany
Perhaps the most important aspect of Sweden's concessions to Germany during the Second World War was the extensive export of iron ore to be used in the German weapons industry, reaching ten million tons per year. As Germany's preparations for war became more apparent and the risk of another war became obvious, international interest in Swedish ore increased. At the time, British intelligence estimated that German industry relied heavily on Swedish iron ore and a decrease or halt in Swedish ore exports could have been disastrous for German military efforts. This is a contentious view that has been debated in the aftermath of the war. Sir Ralph Glyn, a British Member of Parliament, claimed that if Sweden stopped their exports it could lead to an end of the war within six months.[5].
The British offered that[citation needed], if German troops attacked Sweden, the British would come to their rescue. Given that Britain was unable to prevent the successful invasion of France or Norway, the Swedish government was not convinced that the British could protect them, and opted to continue exports. The iron ore provided much needed gold bullion, food and coal from Germany. The iron ore was transported by sea from the Norwegian town of Narvik and from Luleå in northern Sweden. The shipment was attacked by British aircraft and submarines in the Atlantic and North Sea and by Soviet submarines in the Baltic. About 70 vessels were sunk and 200 sailors lost.[6]
The Germans were still co-operative, as Sweden continued its exports off the record. This led to detailed plans being drawn up by the American Eighth Air Force to destroy the rail terminus in Stockholm.[citation needed]
In addition to iron ore, Germany required Swedish ball bearings (some of the best available at the time) for use in tank turrets and automated heavy machine guns. In 1944, Sweden promised the Allies it would halt the ball bearing export as well, but found a 'loophole' in the agreement and started to export ball bearing steel and ball bearing machines. Sweden was very concerned about facing the same economic hardship that it had faced during World War I, when it was cut off from all trade bar that with Germany.
Already during the Norwegian Campaign the Swedish Government gave the Wehrmacht access to the Swedish Rail System, to transport wounded soldiers. The Germans are alleged to have transferred 60 soldiers under the guise of Red Cross[citation needed] personnel from the occupied areas in southern Norway to the active Narvik front. This seems unlikely, however, because a mere 60 soldiers could have been flown in from occupied Denmark. Access to the Swedish railways was granted on condition that the number of German soldiers travelling to Norway would balance the number leaving, this condition, of course, would not have hindered an occupying force, once occupational divisions were established.
Until 1943, Norwegian resistance fighters and Jews escaping to Sweden risked deportation into Nazi hands. Up to 50,000 Norwegians were given asylum in Sweden.
Responding to German appeals for volunteers to fight the Soviet Union, approximately 180 Swedes enlisted in Germany's Waffen-SS, and saw combat against Soviet troops on the Eastern Front. This was a choice made by individual Swedish citizens, against Swedish government policy. This number was small compared to most other countries (Norway 10,000; Denmark 20,000; France 11,000; Netherlands 20,000.[7]) Many more joined the Allies, also outside government policy.
With the Skagerack blockade, the Swedish merchant marine found itself split in two. The part inside the Baltic Sea traded goods with Germany during the war, while the largest part was leased to the Allies for convoy shipping. Approximately 1,500 Swedish sailors perished during the war, mostly victims of mines and U-Boat attacks.
[edit] Sweden's collaboration with the Allies
Sweden also made efforts to help the Allied Forces. At the start of the war, a large part of the Swedish merchant navy was leased to Britain. Between 100-200 Swedes travelled to Norway to fight the German invasion.
German telegraph traffic to occupied Oslo went through Swedish leased cables which the Swedes intercepted. The traffic was encoded with the Geheimschreiber, and the crypto was broken by Swedish math professor Arne Beurling [7] who also deciphered 10,400 of the Russian Baltic Fleet's telegrams. Results from this espionage were sent to the Allies through the Polish resistance movement. When the German battleship Bismarck embarked on her raid on the trans-Atlantic convoys, Swedish intelligence informed the British. Swedish businessmen and diplomats were also actively spying for the Allies in Berlin and occupied territories.
In 1945, as the Allies were planning to liberate Denmark and Norway, the United States wanted Sweden to co-operate in this action. Sweden began preparing for "Operation Rädda Danmark" (Operation Save Denmark), in which Sweden was to invade Zealand from Scania. After Denmark had been liberated, Sweden was to assist the Allies in the invasion of Norway. Though this was not necessary in the end, US planes were allowed to use Swedish military bases during the liberation of Norway, from spring of 1944 to 1945. The Allies were also collaborating with C-byrån, the Swedish military intelligence. Sweden allowed Allied spies to listen to German radio signals from a station on Öland, and in Malmö a location was established for British military to lead bombing actions in Germany. Also, since 1943, Norwegian and Danish soldiers (Den danske Brigade) were being trained at Swedish military bases. Sweden also sold the Allies the wrecked remains of a V2 rocket that landed in Sweden.[8] Sweden also set up a series of training camps along the Norwegian border for the resistance in Norway.
[edit] Forced repatriation
- Further information: Swedish extradition of Baltic soldiers
In January 1946, Sweden handed over 146 Baltic and 2,364 German soldiers who had been interned in prison camps to the Soviet Union. At least seven of the internees committed suicide during the process.[citation needed] In 1970, Johan Bergenstråhle made a documentary, Baltutlämningen (English title: A Baltic Tragedy), about the Latvian soldiers who were given to the Soviets to be sentenced to hard labour in prison camps.[9]
[edit] Impact on domestic politics
The Liberal, Conservative and Agrarian parties were concerned about a perceived threat from the Soviet Union and were more favorably disposed towards Finland than the Social Democrats were. Among the latter a certain wariness from the Finnish Civil War still lingered. The Communists were on the other hand loyal to the Soviet Union, and supported its Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany. However, once Germany attacked the Soviet Union they swung around to a pro-Allied view.
[edit] Afterward
Sweden's neutrality has been criticised as ineffectual in reality, as steel and machined parts were supplied to Nazi Germany throughout the war. Many feel ashamed that the government did not stand up to Germany, and many felt this way at the time as well. However, the government believed that protecting its people was of the highest importance, and believed that Sweden could remain uninvolved. Ultimately, the government faced a dilemma: help their close neighbours and the war effort, or protect their own people from invasion by remaining out of the conflict. While it proved impossible to remain entirely uninvolved, they did manage to avoid invasion, at the cost of being seen as cowardly by some. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill famously referred to Sweden during the war as "that small, coward country".[10] The lack of military support for Norway caused some distance in feelings between the two nations, yet they have managed to maintain close relations. Most are aware that the situation was extremely complex, with similarity to the case of Sweden deciding not to come to Finland's aid at the time of the Soviet invasion. Yet, it could be seriouly questioned if an armed conflict with the axis powers would have brought anything other than despair and misery for the Swedes.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Carl-Axel Wangel et al ”Sveriges militära beredskap 1939-1945” (Köping 1982) ISBN 91-85266-20-5 page 126
- ^ Carl-Axel Wangel m. fl. ”Sveriges militära beredskap 1939-1945” (Köping 1982) ISBN 91-85266-20-5 page 136
- ^ From the abstract of: Carl-Gustaf Scott, "The Swedish Midsummer Crisis of 1941: The Crisis that Never Was" Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 37, No. 3, 371-394 (2002) (SAGE JOURNALS ONLINE)
- ^ Winston Churchill - The Second World War. ISBN 978-0712667029
- ^ J. F.L. Ross Neutrality and International Sanctions: Sweden, Switzerland and Collective Security Greenwood Press ISBN 978-0275933494
- ^ Lennart Lundberg Krigsmalmens offer (Värnamo 1993) ISBN 91-86748-10-6
- ^ Amazon.co.uk: Waffen-SS Encyclopedia: Books: Marc J. Rikmenspoel
- ^ http://hum.gu.se/institutioner/arkeologi/pdfs/Backebo_Current_2006.pdf The Air Torpedo of Bäckebo
- ^ New York Times movie summary [1]
- ^ Zubicky, Sioma (1997). Med förintelsen i bagaget (in Swedish). Stockholm: Bonnier Carlsen, 122. ISBN 91-638-3436-7.
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