State-sponsored terrorism
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| Terrorism |
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| General |
| Definitions |
| History |
| International conventions |
| Anti-terrorism legislation |
| Counter-terrorism |
| War on Terrorism |
| Red Terror |
| White Terror |
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| Relation to states |
| State terrorism |
| State sponsorship |
| Tactics |
| Agro-terrorism |
| Bioterrorism |
| Car bombing |
| Environmental terrorism |
| Aircraft hijacking |
| Nuclear terrorism |
| Propaganda of the deed |
| Proxy bomb |
| Suicide attack |
| Configurations |
| Fronts |
| Lone wolf |
The definitions of state-sponsored terrorism, terrorism, and state terrorism are controversial.
According to the United States Code:
- 1) the term "international terrorism" means terrorism involving citizens or the territory of more than one country;
- (2) the term "terrorism" means premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents; and
- (3) the term "terrorist group" means any group practicing, or which has significant subgroups which practice, international terrorism.[1]
The United States Country Reports on Terrorism 2006 defines a state sponsor of terrorism as a state that "repeatedly provide[s] support for acts of international terrorism."[2]
Contents |
[edit] By Country
[edit] Afghanistan
The Taliban's support for Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan and the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan in Central Asia were viewed as state-sponsored terrorism.[citation needed]
[edit] Argentina
Under Jorge Rafael Videla, Argentina took the lead of Operation Condor and other anticommunist operations, supporting the "Cocaine Coup" of Luis García Meza Tejada in Bolivia or the Contras in Nicaragua.[citation needed]
[edit] Belgium
After the retreat of France from NATO, SHAPE headquarters were moved to Mons in Belgium. In 1990, following France's denial of the existence of any "stay-behind" French army, Giulio Andreotti publicly pointed out that the last Allied Clandestine Committee (ACC) meeting, at which the French branch of Gladio was present, had been on October 23 and 24, 1990, under the presidency of Belgian General Van Calster, director of the Belgian military secret service SGR. In November, Guy Coëme, Minister of the Defense, acknowledged the existence of a Belgium "stay-behind" army, raising concerns about a similar implication in terrorist acts in Belgium as in Italy.[citation needed]
[edit] Chile
"Operation Condor", was formally launched in 1975 by Colonel Manuel Contreras of Chile's state security agency, the National Intelligence Directorate, (DINA). Condor enabled the Latin American military states to share intelligence and to hunt down, seize, and execute political opponents in combined operations across borders. Refugees fleeing military coups and repression in their own countries and seeking safe havens in neighboring countries were "disappeared" in combined transnational operations. The military defied international law and traditions of political sanctuary. Condor made use of parallel prisons, secret transport operations, routine assassination and torture. Phase #3 of "Operation Condor" allowed assassination in other countries, including United States and Europe, and under it, several political leaders were assassinated. Victims included former Chilean minister Orlando Letelier -- a fierce foe of the Pinochet regime -- and his American colleague Ronni Moffitt, in Washington, D.C.; Chilean Christian Democratic leader Bernardo Leighton and his wife, in Rome; ex-president of Bolivia Juan Jose Torres, in Buenos Aires; and two Uruguayan legislators known for their opposition to the Uruguayan military regime, Zelmar Michelini and Hector Gutierrez Ruiz, also in Buenos Aires. In the journal Social Justice Vol.26, author Professor of Political Science, and Director of the Latin American and Caribbean Studies Program[1] writes that in the first two cases, "DINA assassination teams "contracted" local terrorist and fascist organizations to assist in carrying out the crimes. Clearly, Operation Condor was an organized system of state terrorism with a transnational reach."[3]
[edit] France
The sinking of the Rainbow Warrior, codenamed Operation Satanic is attributed to France.[4] While docked in Auckland, New Zealand, the Greenpeace ship was bombed by the French foreign intelligence service in order to prevent interference with a French nuclear test in the Pacific. The bombing has been described as an act of state terrorism.[5]
[edit] Iraq
The U.S. believed that Iraq allowed several expatriate groups to maintain offices in Baghdad as late as 2002, including the Arab Liberation Front, the inactive "15 May Organization", the Palestine Liberation Front, and the Abu Nidal Organization.[original research?] These resistance groups and their existence were among the supposed reasons given for the Iraq War led by the United States.[citation needed] Saddam Hussein provided financial and logistical support for various Palestinian groups, including payments of approximately $25,000 (U.S.) to the families of martyrs after their missions were accomplished.[citation needed] Under Saddam, Iraq had also been hosting the Iranian separatist group and terrorist organization the "Mujahidiin-e Khalq" for decades.[citation needed]
[edit] Israel
The prime minister of Turkey, Recep Tayyip Erdogan, had accused Ariel Sharon of "state terrorism" against Palestinians and likened their treatment to that of Jews under the Spanish inquisition. His comments to the Israeli newspaper, Ha'aretz, came after an international outcry over the killing of about 60 Palestinians, including many civilians and children in an assault on Rafah in Gaza.[6][7]
[edit] Italy
Operation Gladio was a clandestine "stay-behind" operation sponsored by the CIA and NATO to counter communist influence after World War II in Italy, as well as in other European countries, which is alleged to have been involved in various terrorist acts.[citation needed] While Gladio is usually used to refer to only the Italian "stay-behind", the term has also been applied to all other "stay-behind" operations. NATO stay-behind armies existed in all countries of Western Europe during the Cold War, including Turkey.[citation needed] Suspected at least since the 1984 revelations of Avanguardia Nazionale member Vincenzo Vinciguerra during his trial, Gladio’s existence was acknowledged by head of Italian government Giulio Andreotti on October 24, 1990, who spoke of a "structure of information, response and safeguard", with arms caches and reserve officers. Further investigations revealed links to neofascists, the Mafia, Propaganda Due Masonic Lodge (aka P2), and the "strategia della tensione" followed in Italy during the 1970s-80s to block the electoral success of the Italian Communist Party (PCI).[citation needed]
[edit] Iran
The governments of the United States, the United Kingdom, Israel, Kazakhstan, and Yemen have accused the Ahmadinejad administration of sponsoring terrorism either in their, or against their, respective countries. United States President George W. Bush has called Iran the "world's primary state sponsor of terror."[8][9][10][11] Iran sponsors Hezbollah, Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad and the al-Mahdi army, groups that Iran doesn't view as terrorist.
[edit] Libya
After the military overthrow of King Idris in 1969 the Libyan Arab Republic (later the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya) to the bewilderment of some supported with weapon supplies, training camps located within Libya and monetary finances an array of armed paramilitary groups both left wing and right wing. Leftist and socialist groups included the Provisional Irish Republican Army, the Basque Fatherland and Liberty, the Umkhonto We Sizwe, the Polisario Front, the Palestine Liberation Organization and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine while others were on the Far Right such as the Moro National Liberation Front, the government of Libya even had brief contacts with the Neo Nazi British National Front which attempted to enlist financial aid from Libya during the 1980s. These contacts were ended after the fascist nature of the NF was discovered during Nick Griffin's visit to Libya in 1986.[citation needed]
In 2006 Libya was removed from the United States list of terrorist supporting nations after it had ended all of its support for armed groups and the development of weapons of mass destruction.[citation needed]
Out of the armed groups Libya used to support the Provisional IRA, Umkhonto we Sizwe and the Moro National Liberation Front have completely abandoned terrorist tactics or political violence.[citation needed]
[edit] North Korea
North Korea has been implicated in terrorist acts such as Korean Air Flight 858.[citation needed]
In September 2007, the North Korean foreign ministry said the United States had agreed to remove North Korea from the "list of terror supporting nations" among other "political and economic compensation measures" in an agreement by which North Korea pledged to declare and disable all its nuclear facilities by the end of 2007. [12]However, shortly thereafter, U.S. nuclear negotiator Christopher Hill said that this was not the case, and that such a move would depend on more progress toward denuclearization.[13]
[edit] Pakistan
Pakistan has been accused by India, Afghanistan, and other nations (including the United States,[15][16] the United Kingdom[17] and China[18]) of its involvement in the Terrorism in Kashmir, Afghanistan,[19] and China.[20] Satellite imagery from the FBI which shows the existence of terror camps[21] and data produced by India's Research and Analysis Wing clearly suggest the existence of many terrorist camps in Pakistan with at least one militant admitting the help given by Pakistan in training them. Another terrorist outfit, the JKLF has openly admitted that more than 3,000 militants from various nationalities were still being trained.[22] Other nonpartisan resources also concur stating that Pakistan’s military and Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) both include personnel who sympathize with and help Islamic terrorists adding that "ISI has provided covert but well-documented support to terrorist groups active in Kashmir, including the al-Qaeda affiliate Jaish-e-Mohammed"[23] Pakistan has denied any involvement in the terrorist activities in Kashmir, arguing that it only provides political and moral support to the secessionist groups. Many Kashmir terrorist groups also maintain their headquarters in Pakistan-administered Kashmir, which is cited as further proof by the Indian Government. Many of the terrorist organisations are banned by the UN, but continue to operate under different names. Even the normally reticent UNO has also publicly increased pressure on Pakistan on its inability to control its Afghanistan border and not restricting the activities of Taliban leaders who have been declared by the UN as terrorists.[24][25] Both the Federal and State governments in India continue to accuse Pakistan of helping several banned terrorist organizations like ULFA in Assam.[26] Experts believe that the ISI has also been involved in training and supplying Chechnyan militants.[27]
Until Pakistan became a key ally in the War on Terrorism, the US Secretary of State included Pakistan on the 1993 list of countries which repeatedly provide support for acts of international terrorism.[15] The recent 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot is also blamed by various sections in the media as being a handiwork of elements in the Pakistani administration. (See Pakistan's role in the plot) Press editorials from around the world have consistently and strongly condemned Pakistan's "terror exports"[28] In fact, many consider that Pakistan has been playing both sides in the fight against terror, on the one hand helping to curtail it while secretly stoking terrorism.[29][30] Even the noted Pakistani journalist, Ahmed Rashid has accused Pakistan's ISI of providing help to the Taliban,[31] a statement echoed by many, including author Ted Galen Carpenter, who states that Pakistan has "assisted rebel forces in Kashmir even though those groups have committed terrorist acts against civilians"[32] Journalist Stephen Schwartz notes that several terrorist and criminal groups are "backed by senior officers in the Pakistani army, the country's ISI intelligence establishment and other armed bodies of the state."[33] According to one author, Daniel Byman, "Pakistan is probably today's most active sponsor of terrorism."[34]
Pakistan's intelligence agency, the ISI, has often been accused of playing a role in major terrorist attacks across the world including the September 11, 2001 attacks in the United States,[35][36][37] terrorism in Kashmir,[38][39][40] Mumbai Train Bombings,[41] London Bombings,[42] Indian Parliament Attack,[43] Varnasi bombings,[44] Hyderabad bombings[45][46] The ISI is also accused of supporting Taliban forces[47] and recruiting and training mujahideen[48][49] to fight in Afganistan[50][51] and Kashmir[52]
Pakistan is also said to be a haven for terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda,[53] Lashkar-e-Omar, Lashkar-e-Toiba, Sipah-e-Sahaba. Pakistan is accused of sheltering and training the Taliban in operations "which include soliciting funding for the Taliban, bankrolling Taliban operations, providing diplomatic support as the Taliban's virtual emissaries abroad, arranging training for Taliban fighters, recruiting skilled and unskilled manpower to serve in Taliban armies, planning and directing offensives, providing and facilitating shipments of ammunition and fuel, and on several occasions apparently directly providing combat support," as quoted by the Human Rights Watch.[54]
[edit] South Africa
The government of Apartheid South Africa has been accused of involvement in a series of incidents. However, these incidents either remain unsolved, unproven or others have actually been convicted for the acts.
- According to information revealed in 1998 by Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Chairman of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission, South African, British and American secret services might have been involved in the 1961 aircrash in Zambia which killed UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld.[55]
- Graça Machel accuses South Africa's Directorate of Military Intelligence of having caused the death of her husband, President Samora Machel of Mozambique in a 1986 aircrash in South Africa, despite the International Civil Aviation Organization accepting the official verdict of the Margo Commission, and subsequent investigations by Truth and Reconciliation Council and a further investigation in 1996[56] not finding evidence to support her claim (see Mozambican Tupolev Tu-134 air disaster).
- Christer Pettersson, a Swedish National, was convicted of the February 1986 assassination of Sweden's prime minister Olof Palme. However, Petterson's conviction was later overturned on appeal and the case remains unsolved. In 1996, in Pretoria's Supreme Court, Eugene de Kock alleged that South African spy, Craig Williamson, was responsible for the Olof Palme assassination.[citation needed]
- Former British diplomat Patrick Haseldine accuses apartheid South Africa of involvement in the Pan Am 103 bombing. However this unproven conspiracy theory is listed as only one of seven alternative theories of the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103. In January 2001, Libyan agent Abdel Basset Ali al-Megrahi was convicted of the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 and has already failed in one appeal against his sentence with a second to heard in 2008. The Libyan government has furthermore accepted "responsibility for the actions of its officials" and paid compensation to the victims.
[edit] Soviet Union
The first official announcement, published in Izvestiya, "Appeal to the Working Class" on September 3, 1918 called for the workers to "crush the hydra of counterrevolution with massive terror". This was followed by the decree "On Red Terror", issued September 5, 1918 by the Cheka.
The terms "repression" and "terror" were normal working terms in the Soviet Union, since the "dictatorship of the proletariat" was supposed to suppress the resistance of other social classes.[57] The entire "ruling class" was exterminated, including "rich people", and a significant part of the intelligentsia and the peasantry labelled kulaks.[57] The numerous victims of extrajudicial punishment were called the "enemies of the people". The "mass terror" by the state included summary executions, torture, sending innocent people to the Gulags, involuntary settlement, and stripping of citizen's rights.[57] Usually, all members of a family, including children, were punished simultaneously as "traitor of Motherland family members".[57] The repressions were conducted by Cheka, OGPU and NKVD in waves known as Red Terror, Collectivisation, Great Purge, Doctor's Plot, and others. The terror against "ruling classes" and general population was practiced in Soviet republics and in the territories "liberated" by the Soviet Army during World War II, including the Baltic Republics, Eastern Europe and North Korea.[57]
After the 1953 death of Stalin and subsequent destalinization, according to defector Ion Mihai Pacepa, the KGB continued its policy of supporting a number of terrorist organizations. KGB General Aleksandr Sakharovsky said that "In today’s world, when nuclear arms have made military force obsolete, terrorism should become our main weapon."[58] He also claimed that "Airplane hijacking is my own invention".[58] In 1969 alone 82 planes were hijacked worldwide by the KGB-financed PLO.[58]
Lt. General Ion Mihai Pacepa also described operation "SIG" (“Zionist Governments”) that was devised in 1972, to turn the whole Islamic world against Israel and the United States.[58] According to him, KGB chairman Yury Andropov explained him that "a billion adversaries could inflict far greater damage on America than could a few millions. We needed to instill a Nazi-style hatred for the Jews throughout the Islamic world, and to turn this weapon of the emotions into a terrorist bloodbath against Israel and its main supporter, the United States." Andropov also told him that "the Islamic world was a waiting petri dish in which we could nurture a virulent strain of America-hatred, grown from the bacterium of Marxist-Leninist thought."[58]
According to Pacepa, the following organizations were assisted, at one period or another, by the KGB: PLO, National Liberation Army of Bolivia (created in 1964 with help from Ernesto Che Guevara); the National Liberation Army of Colombia (created in 1965 with help from Fidel Castro), Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine in 1969, and the Secret Army for Liberation of Armenia in 1975.[59]
The PFLP was also claimed to have received support from the Soviet Union.[60]
[edit] Spain
It was proven in a judicial trial that death squads Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación (GAL), who worked since 1983 until 1987, were financed and backed by key officials within the Spanish Homeland Ministry under PSOE's cabinets.[citation needed] Then President of Spain, Felipe González, was suspected to be implied, but was no prosecuted.
Some of GAL's operations against ETA were done into French territory.[citation needed]
[edit] United Kingdom
The United Kingdom (UK) has been accused of supporting Loyalist terrorist groups, both within the UK and also in cross-border operations into the Republic of Ireland,[61] namely the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) and Ulster Defence Association (UDA). These groups support the territory of Northern Ireland remaining part of the UK. The UK is accused of providing intelligence material, training, firearms, explosives and lists of people that the security forces wanted to have killed.[62] The UK security services have been accused of involvement in the Dublin and Monaghan Bombings by the UVF on 17 May 1974 which killed 33 and wounded nearly 300 civilians.[63]
On the 17 April 2003, Sir John Stevens published his third inquiry into collusion between the British Army and the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) with Loyalist paramilitaries. It stated that there had been collusion in the murder of Pat Finucane by Loyalists.[61]
A former RUC officer, John Weir, has admitted to colluding with Loyalist terrorists in the 1970s in activities that led to the death of ten Catholics and that his superiors had knowledge of 76 more killings carried out by the UVF in the same time period.[64] He also alleges that members of the SAS killed Loyalists who may have planned to expose the collusion.[64]
The UK has also been accused by Iran of supporting Arab separatist terrorism in the southern city of Ahwaz in 2006.[65]
[edit] United States
The United States has been accused of being a state sponsor of terrorism by various groups and nations, including Venezuela, Cuba, and Nicaragua.[66][67][68] U.S. governments covertly sponsored anti-Soviet Afghan Mujahideen during the 1980s,[69] supported the Contras in Nicaragua, intervened in other Central American and Caribbean conflicts.[70]
The earlier School of the Americas has been criticized for allegedly teaching torture techniques and human rights violations done by some of those who attended the school. It has since been reorganized as the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation and several changes have been made due to the criticisms.
In 1984, Nicaragua filed a suit in the International Court of Justice (ICJ) against the United States (Nicaragua vs. United States), which resulted in a 1986 judgment against the United States which was to pay reparations. The court stated that, through such actions as the placement of underwater mines by CIA operatives and training, funding and support for the guerrilla forces, the US was "in breach of its obligations under customary international law not to use force against another State", "not to intervene in its affairs", "not to violate its sovereignty", "not to interrupt peaceful maritime commerce", and "in breach of its obligations under Article XIX of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the Parties signed at Managua on 21 January 1956." The court had 16 final decisions which it voted upon. In Statement 9, the court stated that by producing in 1983 a manual entitled Psychological Operations in Guerrilla War, and disseminating it to contra forces, has encouraged the commission by them of acts contrary to general principles of humanitarian law; but does not find a basis for concluding that any such acts which may have been committed are imputable to the United States of America as acts of the United States of America. The verdict does not mention terrorism.[71]
The United States argued its action constituted collective self-defense on the part of El Salvador that had asked the US for help against claimed Nicaraguan aggression. El Salvador, confirming this assertion by the United States, told the Court that it considered itself the victim of an armed attack by Nicaragua, since Nicaragua supported an armed insurrection, and that it had asked the United States to exercise for its benefit the right of collective self-defence. The US argued that is acted in response to this initial aggression by Nicaragua The latter argument was affirmed by the primary dissenting justices -- notably U.S. Judge Schwebel, who claimed that "Nicaragua does not come before the Court with clean hands."[72] The US also argued that the Court has no jurisdiction over sovereign states unless they themselves so agree, which the US did not since the Soviet Bloc states were outside its jurisdiction but they still sent judges to the court.[73] The CIA claimed that the purpose of the manual was to "moderate" activities already being done by the Contras.[74][75][76]
The New York Times reported that the CIA orchestrated a bomb and sabotage campaign between 1992 and 1995 in Iraq via one of the resistance organizations, Allawi's group. No public records of the secret bombing campaign are known to exist, and the former U.S. officials said their recollections were in many cases sketchy, and in some cases contradictory. According to the Iraqi government at the time, and one former CIA officer, this caused civilian casualties. "But whether the bombings actually killed any civilians could not be confirmed because, as a former C.I.A. official said, the United States had no significant intelligence sources in Iraq then."[77]
The CIA recruited and trained anti-Castro Cuban militants living in Miami, Florida in secret bases in Florida. The Bay of Pigs Operation is the largest publicly-acknowledged covert CIA-sponsored Cuban insurgent attack against the Cuban government during the cold-war era. This operation involved attacks against military targets. As civilians were not the intended targets of the attack, it is incorrect to refer to it as terrorism.[original research?]
The bombing of Cubana Flight 455 allegedly involved Orlando Bosch and Luis Posada Carriles, persons who had earlier had contacts with the CIA. However, there is no evidence that the United States organized the bombing.[78][79][80][81][82]
[edit] United States list of state sponsors of international terrorism
The U.S. list of state sponsors of international terrorism is a list, compiled by the U.S. State Department, of countries that the United States' sees as sponsoring terrorism. Inclusion on the list imposes strict sanctions.
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Chapter 7 - Legislative Requirements and Key Terms
- ^ Chapter 6 - State Sponsors of Terror Overview
- ^ Mcsherry, J. Patrice. "Operation Condor: Clandestine Inter-American System". Crime and Social Justice Associates, Gale Group.
- ^ Mitterrand ordered bombing of Rainbow Warrior, spy chief says. Retrieved on 2006-11-16.
- ^ Press Release: Auckland University of Technology Author condemns Rainbow Warrior bombing hypocrisy, Scoop.co.nz, Monday, 27 June 2005
- ^ 'Turkish PM accuses Israel of practising state terrorism'
- ^ 'Turkey slams 'Israeli terrorism'
- ^ Blair: Iran sponsors terrorism CNN
- ^ Sharon calls Syria and Iran sponsors of terrorism Pravda
- ^ Kazakhstan dismisses alleged anti-Iran comments from president IRNA
- ^ Fighting breaks out in Yemen with Shi'ite group tied to Iran World Tribune
- ^ BBC News, Sep. 03, 2007 - "N Korea 'to come off terror list'" http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6975882.stm
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6977271.stm - US rebuffs N Korea on terror list - BBC News
- ^ Back to Camp-Dawn July 2005
- ^ a b International Terrorism: Threats and Responses: Hearings Before the Committee on the Judiciary By United States Congress House Committee on the Judiciary, ISBN 0-16-052230-7, 1996, pp482
- ^ Overview of State-Sponsored Terrorism April 30, 2001 U.S. State Department
- ^ Daily Times Story
- ^ China turns table on Pakistan, accuses it of training terrorists The Times of India, 19 Apr, 2007
- ^ Pakistan's link to Afghan terrorism
- ^ Uzbek leader blames Pakistan for terrorist outburst
- ^ FBI identifies terror camp in Pakistan through satellite pictures
- ^ 'Pak feared exposure of militant camps' - Rediff October 16, 2005
- ^ Terrorism Havens: Pakistan - Council on Foreign Relations
- ^ http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/09/news/afghan.php Pakistan should crack down on Taliban, UN official says]
- ^ BBC Story
- ^ Assam accuses Pakistan High Commission of helping ULFA
- ^ Who Is Osama Bin Laden? by Michel Chossudovsky Professor of Economics, University of Ottawa hosted on Centre for Research on Globalisation
- ^ Editorial: Terror exports made in Pakistan- The Australian
- ^ Pakistan said to play both sides on terror war October 02, 2006, Christian Science Monitor
- ^ Dangerous game of state-sponsored terror that threatens nuclear conflict May 25, 2002, Guardian Unlimited
- ^ Die Zeit - Kosmoblog » Mustread: Rashid über Afghanistan
- ^ Terrorist Sponsors: Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, China by Ted Galen Carpenter November 16, 2001 Cato Institute
- ^ Stephen Schwartz (19 August 2006). A threat to the world. The Spectator. Retrieved on 2007-09-20.
- ^ Deadly Connections: States That Sponsor Terrorism By Daniel Byman, ISBN 0-521-83973-4, 2005, Cambridge University Press, pp 155
- ^ Michael Meacher: The Pakistan connection | World news | The Guardian
- ^ Centre for Research on Globalisation (CRG)
- ^ BBC News | SOUTH ASIA | Pakistan spy service 'aiding Bin Laden'
- ^ Terrorism Havens: Pakistan - Council on Foreign Relations
- ^ Indian minister ties ISI to Kashmir
- ^ Kashmir Militant Extremists - Council on Foreign Relations
- ^ BBC NEWS | South Asia | Pakistan 'role in Mumbai attacks'
- ^ The Pakistani Connection: The London Bombers and "Al Qaeda's Webmaster"
- ^ Terrorist Attack on the Parliament of India - December 13, 2001
- ^ ISI now outsources terror to Bangladesh
- ^ Hyderabad blasts: The ISI hand
- ^ ISI may be behind Hyderabad blasts: Jana Reddy
- ^ BBC NEWS | South Asia | Pakistan's shadowy secret service
- ^ BBC NEWS | South Asia | Pakistan's shadowy secret service
- ^ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/10/06/wafghan06.xml
- ^ At Border, Signs of Pakistani Role in Taliban Surge - New York Times
- ^ A NATION CHALLENGED: THE SUSPECTS; Death of Reporter Puts Focus On Pakistan Intelligence Unit - New York Times
- ^ A NATION CHALLENGED: THE SUSPECTS; Death of Reporter Puts Focus On Pakistan Intelligence Unit - New York Times
- ^ Zee News - Pakistan has al-Qaeda training camp: US officials
- ^ Crisis of Impunity - Pakistan's Support Of The Taliban
- ^ UN assassination plot denied
- ^ "Mystery still surrounds Machel death", BBC News, October 19, 2006.
- ^ a b c d e Stephane Courtois; Nicolas Werth; Jean-Louis Panne; Andrzej Paczkowski; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-07608-7.
- ^ a b c d e Russian Footprints - by Ion Mihai Pacepa, National Review Online, August 24, 2006
- ^ From Russia With Terror, FrontPageMagazine.com, interview with Ion Mihai Pacepa, March 1, 2004
- ^ Courtois, Stephane; Werth, Nicolas; Panne, Jean-Louis; Paczkowski, Andrzej; Bartosek, Karel; Margolin, Jean-Louis & Kramer, Mark (1999). The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-07608-7. Chapter 18
- ^ a b Text of Sir John Steven's Inquiry into collusion between the UK and Loyalist Terrorists
- ^ "Stevens Inquiry: At a Glance", BBC News Online, 2003-04-17. Retrieved on 2006-11-25. (English)
- ^ Dublin and Monaghan Bombings-Relatives for Justice
- ^ a b Connolly, Frank. "I'm lucky to be above the ground", Village: Ireland's Current Affairs Weekly. Retrieved on 2006-11-16. (English)
- ^ "Iran accuses UK of bombing link", BBC News, BBC News, 2006-1-25. Retrieved on 2006-11-25. (English)
- ^ Venezuelan leader lashes at US in UN speech | AFP | Find Articles at BNET.com
- ^ CAstro, Chavez decry inequalities, condemn IMF
- ^ AROUND THE WORLD; Nicaragua Accuses U.S. Of Role in Air Attacks - New York Times
- ^ Frankenstein the CIA created | World news | guardian.co.uk
- ^ McSherry, Patrice J. Predatory States: Operation Condor and Covert War in Latin America, Rowman & Littlefield,246-255
- ^ International Court of Justice Year 1986, 27 June 1986, General list No. 70, paragraphs 251, 252, 157, 158, 233.. International Court of Justice. Retrieved on 2006-07-30. Large PDF file from the ICJ website
- ^ http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/icases/inus/inus_isummaries/inus_isummary_19860627.htm
- ^ David Horowitz. Chomsky and 9/11. Page 172-4 In The Anti-Chomsky Reader (2004) Peter Collier and David Horowitz, editors. Encounter Books.
- ^ International Law PSCI 0236 > International Law PSCI 0236 > Introduction. middlebury.edu. Retrieved on 2006-09-05.
- ^ Declassified Army and CIA Manuals. Latin American Working Group. Retrieved on 2006-07-30.
- ^ Blum, William (2003). Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions since World War II. Noida, India: Zed Books, 290. ISBN 1-84277-369-0.
- ^ Brinkley, Joel (2004 June 9). "Ex-C.I.A. Aides Say Iraq Leader Helped Agency in 90's Attacks". New York Times.
- ^ Bush's Hypocrisy: Cuban Terrorists
- ^ The Bush dynasty and the Cuban criminals | World news | The Guardian
- ^ Bring the Cuban terrorist to justice - Los Angeles Times
- ^ http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=05/05/09/148243
- ^ On George Bush's pardon of anti-Cuban terrorist Orlando Bosch
[edit] Further reading
- Dreyfus, Robert. The Devil's Game: How the United States unleashed Fundamentalist Islam. Pluto Press, 2005.
- Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds. Terrorism: Essential primary sources. Thomson Gale, 2006. ISBN 9781414406213 Library of Congress. Jefferson or Adams Bldg General or Area Studies Reading Rms LC Control Number: 2005024002.
- Tarpley, Webster G. 9/11 Synthetic Terror, Made in USA -Progressive Press. ISBN 0-93085-231-1
- Chomsky, Noam. The Culture of Terrorism ISBN 0-89608-334-9
- Chomsky, Noam. 9/11 ISBN 1-58322-489-0
- George, Alexander. Western State Terrorism, Polity Press. ISBN 0-7456-0931-7
[edit] External links
- Overview of State-Sponsored Terrorism - Released by US Department of State
- State Sponsors of Terrorism, US Department of State, accessed 10-2006.
