Search and rescue

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For the TV series of this title, see Search and Rescue (TV series).

Search and rescue (SAR) is an operation mounted by emergency services. Often well-trained volunteers are sent to find someone believed to be in distress, lost, sick, or injured in remote or inaccessible areas. The term can also be applied in urban situations when young children or dementia patients wander away from their homes and cannot be found.^{[citation needed]}

Contents 1 Types of Search and Rescue 1.1 Mountain Rescue 1.2 Urban search and rescue 1.3 Combat Search and Rescue 1.4 Air Sea Rescue 2 Definition of Search and Rescue 3 Operational phases 3.1 Alerting 3.2 Search 3.3 Rescue 3.4 Recovery 3.5 Recall and demobilization 4 Standards 5 International Divisions of Search and Rescue Responsibility 5.1 International Waters 6 SAR by nation 7 See also 8 Groups 9 External links 10 References

[edit] Types of Search and Rescue

[edit] Mountain Rescue

Mountain Rescue relates to search and rescue operations specifically in rugged terrain such as mountains, desert and forest. Also referred to as wilderness search and rescue which includes areas such as sea, lakes, rivers or caves.

[edit] Urban search and rescue

Urban search and rescue (Also known as Suburban Search and Rescue as USAR Teams often relates to structural collapses and other technical rescue) operations are Search and Rescue operations conducted in a city. One of the most common is searching for people buried as a result of a building collapse, as might happen after an earthquake. Sometimes, urban searches are performed for missing persons with certain criteria (example, a missing Alzheimer's patient with a history of wandering away from their home). Also, a wilderness search may transition into an urban search. This is common when lost children are involved.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Combat Search and Rescue

Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR) is a function of special military units during wartime. CSAR consists of operations carried out to retrieve, rescue and provide assistance to downed aircrews or allies behind enemy lines. CSAR missions generally have the mission's aircrews well armed as they cross into enemy territory. The USAF Pararescue jumpers are an example of a CSAR unit. One famous CSAR mission was the rescue of US Air Force Captain Scott O'Grady after he was shot down over Bosnia in 1995. Other examples include the more recent Operation Anaconda in Afghanistan, and the famous Battle of Mogadishu in which the "Black Hawk Down" incident occurred.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Air Sea Rescue

Air Sea Rescue (ASR) specifically can refer to both the use of aircraft to search for and locate or recover personnel lost at sea and the recovery of downed airmen at sea. The RAF "Air Sea Rescue Service" used dedicated and/or amphibian aircraft together with armed high speed launches to recover aircrew from the English Channel and other coastal areas during the Second World War while long range flying boats and other aircraft would pick up aircrew (or drop equipment to them) further from shore.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Definition of Search and Rescue

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Search is “An operation, using available personnel & facilities to locate persons in distress.” and Rescue is “An operation to retrieve persons in distress, provide for their initial medical or other needs, and deliver them to a place of safety.”^{[citation needed]}

In other words, “The use of available resources to assist persons or property in potential or actual distress.”^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Operational phases

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Search and Rescue operations have several distinct phases or parts.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Alerting

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See also: Distress radiobeacon

The alerting phase consists of two key elements:

• Detecting possible alerts (i.e. radio signals on 121.5 MHz, phone calls)
• Determining the probability that the alert signals actual distress^{[citation needed]}

SAR authorities are alerted of a distress situation via distress radiobeacons such as emergency locater transmitters, emergency position-indicating radio beacons, or personal locater beacons. They may also be notified by telephone, fax, or other means. In the case of distress radiobeacons, the alert may also provide a lat-lon position of the distress to SAR authorities.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Search

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In the initial phase of the operation, steps are taken to ascertain a likely location of the person being searched for, so that a search area can be established if they are in fact in need of rescue. Essential information is gathered so that leaders can determine not only who is missing, but how they are equipped, how experienced, how familiar with the area, etc.. This information is then factored with other considerations to determine the initial urgency and scale of the mission.^{[citation needed]}

In the Search phase, a search is performed by personnel on foot, horse, or using vehicles, often aided by (dog) teams and, when available, air support. Specific procedures are followed during a Search, including an initial hasty team sent to the most likely locations, containment teams which are posted or patrol likely routes of a lost subject who may be moving, and the assignment of search personnel to specific areas which are mapped out using a combination of theory, prior experience and local knowledge of the terrain. A substantial body of mathematical theory called search theory, some initially developed for anti-submarine warfare, has been developed and can be used to help choose the search area priorities for maritime and inland search operations. Search is usually an iterative process over many hours or even days, with returning field teams interviewed or debriefed to glean information to be incorporated into plans for additional deployments of field teams.^{[citation needed]}

Advances in distress radiobeacon technology are aiming to significantly reduce the amount of time spent searching for persons in distress. See MEOSAR.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Rescue

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In the Rescue phase, aid is rendered to the person where they are found, sufficient to allow them to be safely transported to a place where more intensive aid can be provided. This extrication of the patient often includes some aspects of technical rescue. In certain situations, the subject(s) are in a known position and the operation goes directly to the Rescue phase. The wide availability of cellular phones and increasing coverage areas has increased the number of such calls for rescue without requiring a lengthy Search phase.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Recovery

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The recovery of the body of a deceased person may be considered an aspect of Search and Rescue in some countries, though the actual Rescue phase of the operation is often known as recovery rather than rescue. In other countries rescuers are not permitted to move dead bodies as this is the sole responsibility of a coroner.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Recall and demobilization

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Once the subject has been found, rescued or recovered, then the operation is recalled and with large operations, this phase is sometimes called demobilization.^{[citation needed]}

Afterwards, there is often a critique phase where each phase of the operation is analysed to determine what did or did not work well, and any lessons learned, this is called a debrief. During debriefs searchers and search administrators discuss what took place during the search, the condition of the subject, and what changes could be made next time for the better.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Standards

With or without formal underlying foundations, numerous SAR organisations develop their own proprietary training curricula and operational protocols, which are available and applicable only to their own members. These include the Mountain Rescue Association (MRA), the US National Association of Search and Rescue (NASAR), and the US NFPA.^{[citation needed]}

In the US SAR standards are developed primarily by ASTM International and the US NFPA.^{[citation needed]}

Within ASTM International, most standards of relevance to SAR are developed by Committee F32 on Search and Rescue. Formed in 1988, the committee had 85 current members and jurisdiction of 38 approved standards.^[1]

[edit] International Divisions of Search and Rescue Responsibility

[edit] International Waters

International waters are divided into various regions according to the SOLAS convention. See the map provided by the IMO ocean atlas

[edit] SAR by nation

Antigua & Barbuda

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Antigua Barbuda Search And Rescue (ABSAR) has been providing emergency medical and rescue services to the Antiguan Yachting community for a number of years.^{[citation needed]}

ABSAR is a non-profit organization of volunteers dedicated to saving lives. Based at the Antigua Yacht Club Marina, it specializes in medical emergencies, but also offers assistance for search and rescue, helicopter aerial searches and medevac operations in conjunction with Caribbean Helicopters. ABSAR rescue relies 100% on donations.^{[citation needed]}

Australia
AusSAR, which is part of the Australian Maritime Safety Authority (AMSA), provides a national search and rescue service.^{[citation needed]}

AusSAR operates a 24 hour Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC) in Canberra and is responsible for the national coordination of both maritime and aviation search and rescue. AusSAR is also responsible for the management and operation of the Australian ground segment of the Cospas-Sarsat distress beacon detection system. The service that spans the nation and covers 52.8 million square kilometres of the Indian, Pacific and Southern Oceans.^{[citation needed]}

AusSAR's RCC is staffed by SAR specialists who have a naval, merchant marine, air force, civil aviation or police service background. The RCC also coordinates medical evacuations, broadcasts maritime safety information and operates the Australian Ship Reporting System (AUSREP).^[2]

State search and rescue

State Police in many states operate state-based search and rescue squads, such as the Victoria Police Search and Rescue Squad, which provides specialist expertise, advice and practical assistance in land search and rescue on most terrain including snow and vertical cliff search and rescue.^[3]

There are also state-based volunteer search and rescue groups such as the Bushwalkers Wilderness Rescue Squad^[4] in New South Wales and Bushwalkers Search and Rescue^[5] in Victoria. These state-based groups draw searchers from bushwalking, mountaineering and specialist rescue clubs within their State.

Belgium
Search and rescue duties along the Belgian part of the North Sea are executed by the Belgian Air Component. From its Koksijde Air Base it operates 5 Westland Sea King Mk.48 helicopters.^[6]

British Virgin Islands

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Virgin Islands Search and Rescue (VISAR) is the officially recognised search and rescue organisation in the British Virgin Islands. VISAR is a voluntary organisation dedicated to saving life at sea, and provides 24-hour cover every day of the year in close co-operation with the Royal British Virgin Islands police, fire and ambulance services.^{[citation needed]}

Unlike many other search & rescue organisation, such as the United States Coast Guard, VISAR is a charity and is funded almost entirely by charitable donation. With running costs in the region of US$150,000 per year, and a population of just 20,000 in the British Virgin Islands, VISAR relies very heavily on donations made by tourists, who visit the British Virgin Islands to come sailing.^{[citation needed]}

Canada

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Search and Rescue in Canada is overseen by a federal agency called the National Search and Rescue Program, and is coordinated by the National Search and Rescue Secretariat, which liaises with the provincial and territorial governments of Canada and other emergency services. Each province and territory also maintains its own emergency management organizations. Generally, air rescue is handled by the Canadian Forces, maritime rescue by the Canadian Coast Guard, and ground and inland water rescue is under the legal authority of the individual provinces and territories (most are handled by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP)). Extensive use of volunteer SAR groups is made by all provinces and territories.^{[citation needed]}

See also Heavy Urban Search and Rescue and Toronto Police's Toronto Police Marine Unit.

Denmark

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Search and Rescue in Denmark is provided by 722 Squadron of the Royal Danish Air Force. The Air Force operates eight AgustaWestland EH101s in SAR configuration. Three aircraft are always on call at bases in Aalborg (EKYT), Skrydstrup (EKSP) and Roskilde (EKRK). In rough weather a fourth aircraft is posted on the island of Bornholm (EKRN) in the Baltic Sea.

The Danish SAR choppers carry a crew of 6: two pilots, navigator, SAR technichian, medic and physician.

Germany

Search and Rescue in German waters is conducted by the German Navy, the German Coast Guard or the Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Rettung Schiffbrüchiger DGzRS (literally translated: German Society for Saving Shipwrecked, more common: German Maritime Rescue Service GMRS). Besides the offshore Search And Rescue services, the German Air Force provides such as well, using Bell UH-1D "Huey" helicopters.^[7]

Hong Kong

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Search and rescue in and around the waters off Hong Kong are directed by the Hong Kong Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre with assistance from:

• Government Flying Service^{[citation needed]}
• Fire Services Department^{[citation needed]}
• Hong Kong Airport Authority / Hong Kong Police Force^{[citation needed]}

Iceland
Search and Rescue operations in Iceland are mainly handled by the Icelandic Association for Search and Rescue (Slysavarnafélagið Landsbjörg) which operates numerous vehicles and boats across the country, along with the Icelandic Coast Guard which operates SAR helicopters and patrol vessels.^[8]

The unique thing about Iceland Association for Search and Rescue is that it is operated almost solely on volunteer’s contribution. The rescue units are more than 100 in total and are located in almost every part of the country. All the units contain groups of specially trained individuals.^[9]

Ireland
SAR services are provided by a civilian body, the Irish Coast Guard.^[10] It has responsibility for the Irish Search and Rescue Region. ^[10]

Also Civil Defence in Ireland also known as Civil Defence Search and Rescue or Recovery, a volunteer based Rescue Service take care of most rescues. In Dublin, Ireland Civil Defence Search and Rescue, is the only rescue service in the county, who also provide for Wicklow and surrounding areas. This unit also do Fire, Radioactive monitoring, extricating, treating and looking after most of the Casualty or casualties found. It is funded by the state and Defence Forces.^{[citation needed]}

Irish Coast Guard who also help Civil Defence was formerly provided by the Irish Air Corps, from 1963 to the early 21st century. The need for longer range helicopters encouraged the Irish Government to create a civilian organisation which hires private companies to provide the service.^{[citation needed]}

This procedure has worked successfully, providing a greatly increased SAR range and forward basing of the SAR service on coastal bases, greatly improving their speed to incident and time on site compared to previous centralised military operations near Dublin.^{[citation needed]}

The introduction of the privatised service also allowed Ireland to field the first female SAR helicopter pilot in Europe, at the time.^{[citation needed]}

Malta
The responsibility for SAR at sea in the Malta Search and Rescue Region falls under the Armed Forces of Malta (AFM). It is carried out by maritime patrol aircraft, helicopters and vessels under the co-ordination, command and control of the Rescue Co-ordination Centre.^[11]

The AFM, in close collaboration with the US Coast Guard, also runs a Search and Rescue Training Centre for International Students[1] in Maritime SAR Mission Co-ordination and Planning.^[12] To date more than 30 foreign students from 15 countries including Albania, Cameroon, Croatia, Equatorial Guinea and Kenya have attended these courses.^[13][14]

Malta is also in talks with Libya about enhancing SAR cooperation between the two countries.^[15]

Netherlands
SAR responsibility in the Netherlands is held by the Dutch Coast Guard, carried out by vessels and aircraft from various organisations among which the Koninklijke Nederlandse Redding Maatschappij, Ministry of Transportation and Water Management and the Navy and Air Force.^[16]

New Zealand
New Zealand's Search and Rescue Region extends from the South Pole to the southern border of the Honolulu region, including Norfolk, Tonga, Samoa, and Cook Islands.^[17]

Land-based search and rescue operations (called LSAR, for Land Search and Rescue), such as for lost hikers, are controlled by the local police. Maritime search and rescue, as well as reports of overdue aircraft, fall under the control of the National Rescue Coordination Centre, based in Wellington, which coordinates response from local coastguard, helicopter operators, merchant marine, air force and naval resources.^[17]

Norway

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Norwegian SAR-services are carried out through cooperation between government agencies, voluntary organisations and private companies who have resources appropriate for rescue services. The Norwegian Joint Rescue Coordination Centres ("Hovedredningssentralene") have the overall operational responsibility during search and rescue operations.^{[citation needed]}

Typical providers of SAR are the The Norwegian Coast Guard (Kystvakten), the Norwegian police, firebrigades and the military.^{[citation needed]}

In addition many privately owned institutions exists such as The Rescue Company (Redningsselskapet) and the Norwegian Air Ambulance (Norsk Luftambulanse). Funding is typically provided from its members and the government.^{[citation needed]}

Philippines

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Philippine SAR Operations are the responsibility of the Philippine Air Force and the Philippine Coast Guard. The Air Force has a dedicated SAR formation, the 505th Search and Rescue Group. The group is equipped with the Bell UH-1, Bell 205 and the Sikorsky S-70 helicopters, along with the locally upgraded Huey II helicopter. The 505th SAR has the capability of carrying out search and rescue in mountainous areas as well as over the ocean.

The Coast Guard patrols Philippine waters and conducts search and rescue operations with '78 Halter patrol craft.^{[citation needed]}

Poland

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The SAR Service was established on January 1, 2002 by virtue of the Safety at Sea Act (November 9, 2000)^{[citation needed]}

SAR Service takes part in search and rescue of human life at the sea and the tasks related to combating sea pollution. Because Poland is a part of International Conventions like The International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue and The Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, Maritime Search and Rescue Service (called SAR Service) was established.^{[citation needed]}

The SAR Service is a state owned budget unit subordinated to the competent Minister for Maritime Economy.^{[citation needed]}

South Africa

Major search and rescue events, such as missing ships or aircraft, are coordinated by SASAR, the South African Search and Rescue Organisation. These operations are often carried out in conjunction with the South African National Defence Force, the Civil Aviation Authority and the South African Police Services. Local search and rescue efforts are coordinated by provincial emergency services often in conjunction with the South African Police Services. There are numerous specialist search and rescue organisations such as the National Sea Rescue Institute and the Mountain Club of South Africa's search and rescue team. Many of these teams are staffed by volunteers.

United Kingdom
In the UK, maritime search and rescue is coordinated by HM Coastguard, while land-based operations are usually coordinated by the local Police force. The operation itself is carried out with aircraft from the Royal Navy, RAF or Coastguard, RNLI lifeboats and police, military or volunteer mountain rescue or ALSAR (Association of Lowland Search and Rescue) teams. Aircraft coordination is carried out by the UK Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre (ARCC) based at RAF Kinloss in the north of Scotland. The centre is responsible for tasking and coordinating all of the UK's search and rescue helicopter and RAF mountain rescue teams.^[18]

In 2006, the government announced controversial plans to effectively privatise provision of search and rescue helicopters in order to replace the aging Sea Kings currently in use, although they have suggested that crews may, at least partially, still be made up of military personnel.^[19]

United States

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The National Search and Rescue plan designates the United States Coast Guard as the federal agency responsible for maritime SAR and the United States Air Force as the federal agency responsible for inland SAR. Both agencies maintain Rescue Coordination Centers to coordinate this effort. The jurisdiction for local lost person SAR operations varies from state to state in the United States, and depends upon the nature of the operation.^{[citation needed]}

  Urban SAR

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Urban SAR operations involve searching through debris and are often but not always under the jurisdiction of the fire department especially when a rescue is involved. If there is a criminal element, such as abduction, then a law enforcement agency will usually have jurisdictional authority.^{[citation needed]}

  Wilderness SAR'

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Authority for Wilderness SAR and Mountain Rescue varies, with some states (e.g., New Mexico) supervising operations from a state-wide office such as state police or office of emergency management. Many states place authority for SAR with the local sheriff of the county in which the incident took place (e.g., Colorado). The United States Forest Service may also be involved. State fish and game wardens may also be responsible (e.g., New Hampshire). Within U.S. national parks and monuments, the National Park Service maintains authority, "exclusive jurisdiction," regardless of state law. Most wilderness SAR operations involve volunteer groups such as members of NCCERT, Mountain Rescue Association and US-HERO, who work for the jurisdictional authority.^{[citation needed]}

In addition to their responsibilities in the area of missing aircraft SAR, the Civil Air Patrol (USAF Aux) often assists in wilderness SAR when activated by the Air Force Rescue Coordination Center.^{[citation needed]}

  Water SAR

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SAR on federal waters is usually the responsibility of the United States Coast Guard, but in inland and joint jurisdiction waters state and local government agencies assume some or all responsibility for SAR.^{[citation needed]}

In some situations, body recovery may fall under a separate command, such as the state medical investigator or county medical examiner, depending upon the local laws.^{[citation needed]}

  Missing Aircraft and ELT beacon searches

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Where downed aircraft are involved, the state aeronautics commission (or their delegate) is responsible for the recovery and subsequent investigation. Most states use the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) in conjunction with their local SAR team. CAP is the Air Force Auxiliary. CAP SAR teams are activated through the United States Air Force Rescue Coordination Center to conduct searches for possible or actual missing aircraft. CAP conducts over 95% of all federal search and rescue missions directed by the Center for possible or actual missing aircraft. CAP also helps with missing person searches as requested by county, state and other agencies.^{[citation needed]}

  Personnel

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Urban operations are generally staffed with paid personnel from fire, EMS, law enforcement agencies and volunteer teams with mutual aid agreements.^{[citation needed]}

Wilderness operations are usually staffed with a combination of paid and volunteer personnel. Volunteers may be members of a public safety agency such as a fire department or county sheriff but are also likely to be members of an independent non-profit group with specialized skills such as ground search and rescue, airborne search, wilderness navigation, cave rescue, mountain rescue, ski patrol and wilderness first aid. Large operations can bring a dozen or more separate groups and government agencies to a single operation, which is usually managed using the Incident Command System (ICS) originally developed for management of diverse resources to combat large wildfires. The managing agency tends to be state law enforcement, or the county that the search is being staged in.^{[citation needed]}

Marine operations in the U.S. are generally staffed by the United States Coast Guard including its Auxiliary, and on inland waters county and state public safety agencies will also participate.^{[citation needed]}

Aviation search operations in the U.S. are staffed by Civil Air Patrol volunteers, which include both aircrews and ground teams trained for wilderness search in coordination with aircraft. CAP members also perform SAR and disaster relief activities of other natures, in the effort to assist local, state, and national authorities as directed by CAP Incident Commanders and the Air Force Rescue Coordination Center.^{[citation needed]}

  SAR Units

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Most SAR units in the United States are all-volunteer groups that work under the jurisdictional authorities. These may be sponsored by a jurisdictional authority (Sheriff's Office or Police Department) or be an independent group with a Mutual Aid Agreement with the jurisdictional authorities. Examples of all volunteer groups are NCCERT, US-HERO, ASRC, Explorer Search and Rescue, and US Search And Rescue Task Force.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] See also

• Avalanche
• Cave rescue
• Mountain rescue
• Mounted search and rescue
• Search and rescue dog
• International Search and Rescue Advisory Group

International Society of Professional Trackers

• Volunteer Search & Rescue
• Satellite distress detection - Cospas-Sarsat (C-S)

[edit] Groups

• United States Homeland Emergency Response Organization (US-HERO)
• Westpac Life Saver Rescue Helicopter
• Civil Air Patrol (CAP)
• Coast Guard
• Emergency Locator Transmitter for missing aircraft
• Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB)
• Explorer Search and Rescue
• MEDEVAC
• United States Coast Guard
• United States Coast Guard Auxiliary
• USAR Teams
• Ski patrol
• Wilderness first aid
• 103 Search and Rescue Squadron CFAC
• US Search And Rescue Task force
• Air Force Rescue Coordination Center
• Maryland State Police
• Cardiff and Vale Rescue Association
• Long Beach Search & Rescue
• Snohomish County Volunteer Search and Rescue
• Multnomah County Sheriff's Office Search and Rescue
• Mercia Inshore Search and Rescue
• Scarborough and Ryedale mountain rescue team
• Arapahoe Rescue Patrol

[edit] External links

• Search and rescue at the Open Directory Project
• Rotary rescue Extract from Jane's Defence Weekly article (3 August 2006)
• InternetSAR.org Volunteer Project
• South African Search and Rescue Organization

[edit] References