Political religion

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State religion and civil religion are separate topics.

In the terminology of some scholars working in sociology, a political religion is a political ideology with cultural and political power equivalent to those of a religion, and often having many sociological and ideological similarities with religion.

The term is sometimes treated as synonymous with civil religion, but although some scholars use the terms as equivalent, others see a useful distinction, using "civil religion" as something weaker, which functions more as a socially unifying and essentially conservative force, where a political religion is radically transformational, even apocalyptic.

The term is sometimes used outside academia, often with meanings tangential to or opposite to the sociological usage (for example, applying it to a church). Even when used correctly, supporters of an ideology will generally reject the application of the term "political religion".

Contents 1 Overview 2 Aspects of political religions 2.1 Suppression of religious beliefs 2.2 Absolute loyalty 2.3 Fear 2.4 Externalize blame 2.5 Cult of personality 2.6 Propaganda 3 Traditional cases 3.1 Fascism 3.1.1 Italian fascism 3.1.2 Nazism 3.2 Stalinism 3.3 Juche 4 Possible or recent cases 4.1 United States 4.2 North Korea 4.3 Turkmenistan 5 Footnotes 6 References 7 See also 8 External links

[edit] Overview

The term political religion is a sociological one, drawing on the sociological aspects of religion which can be often be found in certain secular ideologies. A political religion occupies much the same psychological and sociological space as a theistic religion, and as a result it often displaces or co-opts existing religious organizations and beliefs; this is described as a "sacralisation" of politics. However, although a political religion may co-opt existing religious structures or symbolism, it does not itself have any independent spiritual or theocratic elements - it is essentially secular, using religion only for political purposes, if it does not reject religious faith outright.

The first scholars to use the concept of political religion (or occasionally-used synonyms such as "secular religion" and "lay religion") were Protestant and Catholic intellectuals and theologians, such as Luigi Sturzo, Adolf Keller, Paul Tillich, Gerhard Leibholz, Waldemar Gurian and Eric Voegelin.[1] These linked the concept to modernity, mass society and the rise of the bureaucratic state, and seeing in political religions "the climax of the rebellion against the religion of God", also described them as ‘pseudo-religions’, ‘substitute religions’, ‘surrogate religions’, ‘religions manipulated by man’ and ‘anti-religions’.[2]

[edit] Aspects of political religions

Key memetic qualities often (not all are always strongly present) shared by religion (particularly cults) and political religion include

• Structural
  • differentiation between self and other, and demonisation of other (in theistic religion, the differentiation usually depends on adherence to certain dogmas and social behaviours; in political religion, differentiation may be on grounds such as nationality, social attitudes, or membership in "enemy" political parties, instead)
  • a charismatic figurehead, with messianic tendencies; if figurehead is deceased, powerful successors;
  • strong, hierarchical organisational structures
  • a desire to control education, in order to ensure the security of the system

• Belief
  • a coherent belief system for imposing symbolic meaning on the external world, with an emphasis on security through purity;
  • an intolerance of other ideologies of the same type
  • a degree of utopianism
  • the belief that the ideology is in some way natural or obvious, so that (at least for certain groups of people) those who reject it are in some way "blind"
  • a genuine desire on the part of individuals to convert others to the cause
  • a willingness to place ends over means - in particular, a willingness to use violence and fraud
  • fatalism - a belief that the ideology will inevitably triumph in the end

Not all of these aspects are present in any one political religion; this is only a list of some common aspects.

[edit] Suppression of religious beliefs

Loyalty to other entities, such as a church or a deity are often seen to interfere with loyalty to the political religion. The authority of potential religious leaders also presents a threat to the authority of the political religion. As a result, some or all religious sects are either suppressed or banned. An existing sect may be converted into a state religion, but dogma and personnel may be modified to suit the needs of the party or state. Where there is suppression of religious institutions and beliefs, this might be explicitly accompanied by atheistic doctrine.

[edit] Absolute loyalty

Loyalty to the state or political party and acceptance of the government/party ideology is paramount. Dissenters may be expelled, ostracized, discriminated against, imprisoned, "re-educated", or killed. Loyalty oaths or membership in a dominant (or sole) political party may be required for employment, government services, or simply as routine. Criticism of the government may be a serious crime. Enforcements range from ostracism from one's neighbors to execution.

[edit] Fear

The political religion often helps maintain its power base by instilling fear of some kind in the population. For example, North Korea holds frequent air raid drills to emphasize the possibility of imminent invasion. In China, the government emphasizes the danger of instability. The Stalinists maintained a state of panic by claiming that Trotskyist conspirators were sabotaging the Soviet Union. In Germany, the Reichstag fire, blamed on Communist terrorism, provided an opportunity for Adolf Hitler to declare a state of emergency.

Domestic displays of military power may be frequent. Citizens may obey harsh state mandates out of fear of being reported by fellow citizens or caught by the secret police.

When the political religion lacks complete control of the state, it may instead emphasize the threat posed to society by some otherwise-recognized or hypothetical threat or whichever rival party or group it deems to be the most "demonic".

[edit] Externalize blame

A common tactic of political religions is to pin blame for the nation's problems on a particular entity or group. North Korea blames its economic problems on the United States. In Nazi Germany, Jews and other minority groups were the target.

[edit] Cult of personality

See main article: Cult of personality

A political religion often elevates its leaders to near-godlike status. Displays of leaders in the form of posters or statues may be mandated in public areas and even private homes. Children may be required to learn the state's version of the leaders' biographies in school.

[edit] Propaganda

Political gatherings may supplement or replace religious ceremonies to help reinforce loyalty. The state usually controls the mass media for similar reasons, filling it with propaganda. Political religions that do not have such a level of mandated control may, instead, use commercial means to influence editorial and programming decisions. Certain leisure or cultural activities may also be mandated to reinforce some aspect of loyalty or the state ideology.

[edit] Traditional cases

[edit] Fascism

See main articles Fascism, Fascist symbolism

[edit] Italian fascism

See main article: Italian fascism

According to Emilio Gentile, "Fascism was the first and prime instance of a modern political religion."[3] "This religion sacralized the state and assigned it the primary educational task of transforming the mentality, the character, and the customs of Italians. The aim was to create a 'new man,' a believer in and an observing member of the cult of Fascism."^[1]

"The argument [that fascism was a ‘political religion’] tends to involve three main claims: i) that fascism was characterized by a religious form, particularly in terms of language and ritual; ii) that fascism was a sacralized form of totalitarianism, which legitimized violence in defence of the nation and regeneration of a fascist 'new man'; and iii) that fascism took on many of the functions of religion for a broad swathe of society."[4]

[edit] Nazism

See main articles Nazism, Nazi mysticism

"Among committed [Nazi] believers, a mythic world of eternally strong heroes, demons, fire and sword - in a word, the fantasy world of the nursery - displaced reality."^[2] Heinrich Himmler was fascinated by the occult, and sought to turn the SS into the basis of an official state cult.^[3]

[edit] Stalinism

See main article: Stalinism

[edit] Juche

See main article: Juche

[edit] Possible or recent cases

[edit] United States

The United States has at times been said to have or have had an extremely weak form of a political religion, though lacking some of the required features, because of the influence of a somewhat evangelical form of patriotism ("the American Way") on public discourse. Abraham Lincoln declared in 1838 that the Constitution and the laws of the United States had to become the ‘political religion’ of the American nation.^[4] However, the phenomenon is usually considered a form of civil religion.

The US' type of patriotism is often traced to the US' nature as a nation of immigrants which needs to ensure a strong national identity to ensure its survival as a unified entity, and includes a particularly strong symbolism attached to the national flag (Stars and Stripes), national anthem (Star Spangled Banner) and Pledge of Allegiance. The symbolic meaning of the flag in particular is so strong that anti-flag-burning amendments to the U.S. Constitution are often proposed, whilst the national anthem (which eulogises the flag) is not merely used at official occasions and the Olympics but also frequently at ordinary sports events. As a result scholars have argued that the American flag can be seen as a main totem of a national cult,^[5] a quality of political religion. In addition, the Pledge of Allegiance is often cited on a daily basis in schools. Attacks (critical and physical) are often described as anti-Americanism and seen as attacks not merely on the policies of the state, but on the ideology (often described as free market democracy) often seen to be crucial to its essence. The US also often sees itself in a messianic role of "saving the world", with a national narrative that (simplistically, many historians would say) sees the US as having nearly single-handedly saved the world in two world wars, defeated the spectre of communism, and that its ideology of free-market democracy is not only superior to all alternatives - and to be encouraged if not imposed - but will inevitably become universal, as an end of history.

Paradoxically, opponents of this American political religion may adopt many of the ideological tactics they purport to oppose, becoming an "opposition political religion" rather than an opposition to political religion.

[edit] North Korea

The North Korean government has promulgated Juche as a political alternative to traditional religion. The doctrine advocates a strong nationalist propaganda basis and is fundamentally opposed to Christianity and Buddhism, the two largest religions on the Korean peninsula. Juche theoreticians have, however, incorporated religious ideas into the state ideology. According to government figures, Juche is the largest political religion in North Korea. The public practice of all other religions is overseen and subject to heavy surveillance by the state.

"Whether he is building a political religion to control the people or transforming political ideas into pseudo-religion, it seems that one must 'believe' in new reinterpretation of the Juche idea in order to survive in North Korea. Kim Il Sung, at least, attempted to build and manage a Socialist state with the Workers’ Party of Korea, but the people today must believe in a new political religion by Kim Jong Il to survive in North Korea."^[6]

[edit] Turkmenistan

Large pictures and statues of the late president of Turkmenistan, Saparmurat Niyazov, can be seen in public places in that country. In an interview with the television news program "60 Minutes", Niyazov said the people of Turkmenistan placed them there voluntarily because they love him so much, and that he did not originally want them there. In addition, he has given himself the title "Türkmenbaşy", meaning "Leader of all Ethnic Turkmens" in the Turkmen language. A book purportedly authored by Niyazov, Ruhnama ("Book of the Soul") is required reading in educational institutions and is often displayed and treated with the same respect as the Qur'an.

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] References

• Eric Voegelin (1986), The Political Religions, (Lewiston, N.Y.: E. Mellen Press, 1986; 1st German ed. 1938)
• Emilio Gentile and Keith Botsford (Translator) (1996), The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy, Harvard University Press
• Emilio Gentile (2005), "Political Religion: A Concept and its Critics - A Critical Survey," Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions, Volume 6, No. 1
• Klaus Vondung (2005), "National socialism as a political religion: Potentials and limits of an analytical concept", Totalitarian Movements & Political Religions 6(1)
• Wolfgang Hardtwig (2001) "Political Religion in Modern Germany: Reflections on Nationalism, Socialism, and National Socialism", Bulletin of the German Historical Institute, Volume 28
• Jacques Ellul,The New Demons. Trans. C. Edward Hopkin. New York: Seabury, 1975. London: Mowbrays, 1975.

[edit] See also

• History of political Islam in Iran
• Civil religion
• Clerical fascism
• Statolatry

[edit] External links

• Initiative on Religion in International Affairs at Harvard
• Conference on Political religions in the modern era, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 7-9 May 2004
• Totalitarian Movements & Political Religions, "Special Issue: Political Religions as a characteristic of the 20th century", Volume 6 Number 1/June 2005, Taylor & Francis (requires subscription)