History of Manchester

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The history of Manchester is one of change from a minor Lancastrian township into a pre-eminent industrial metropolis of the United Kingdom and the world. Manchester began expanding "at an astonishing rate" around the turn of the 19th century as part of a process of unplanned urbanisation brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution. The transformation took little more than a century.

Evolving from a Roman castra, Manchester's history embraces the world's first passenger railway station and first public library. It also led the political and economic reform of 19th-century Britain as the vanguard of free trade. By the start of the 21st century it had become a post-industrial city with multiple sporting, broadcasting, and educational institutions.

Contents 1 Prehistoric times 2 Roman times 3 Post-Roman 4 Medieval growth 5 Growth of the textile trade 6 Industrial Revolution 7 Reform 8 Industrial and cultural growth 9 Further expansion 10 Twentieth century 11 World War II 12 Postwar 13 The IRA bomb and its effects 14 Around and after 2000 14.1 Civic history 15 Greater Manchester 16 See also 16.1 Textiles 16.2 Railway history 16.3 Universities 16.4 Manchester's famous scientists 16.5 Manchester's famous engineers 16.6 Other well-known Manchester residents 17 Further reading 18 External links 19 References 19.1 Bibliography

[edit] Prehistoric times

Despite a number of archaeological finds in the area, there is no evidence to suggest a pre-Roman settlement at Manchester (though there is evidence of Bronze Age settlement in Moston). Before the Roman invasion of Britain, the location lay within the territory dominated by the Brigantes.

[edit] Roman times

Gnaeus Julius Agricola, in the course of his campaign against the powerful Brigantes tribe, established a temporary wooden fort at the confluence of the Rivers Irwell and Medlock in 79 AD. It was called Mamucium, which is a Celtic word meaning "breast-shaped hill" (see also Mancunium).

The fort was rebuilt a number of times in stone, becoming a permanent feature. This was because it occupied a strategic position. Firstly, it guarded a convenient point where the Irwell might be crossed by a road from the South that led Northwards, via Bremetennacum (Ribchester) to the fortified zone that included Hadrian's Wall. Secondly, this road intersected at this point with the great road that connected the important legionary bases of Deva Victrix (Chester) and Eboracum (York).

Contrary to popular myth, typified by a nearby mural of marching legionaries, the fort was garrisoned for most of its life by a mixed cavalry and infantry force composed of Roman Auxiliary troops. These were not Roman citizens, and were regarded as mercenaries - they were issued with round shields and often wore their native dress. An altar in the Manchester Museum suggests that some of these came from a region in present-day Austria.

A civilian settlement, or vicus soon developed, to serve the needs of the garrison and passing travellers. Important finds include a number of altars, evidence of a Mithraic temple at nearby Hulme, and a Christian word square. The latter is extremely rare (one was found at Pompeii), and are thought to be an anagram by which early Christian groups identified themselves to each other. Many of these finds are displayed in the Manchester Museum.

[edit] Post-Roman

At some stage of the so-called Dark Ages, the fort was abandoned, and in post-Roman or Saxon times the focus of settlement at Manchester shifted to the confluence of the rivers Irwell and Irk. In 919, Edward the Elder sent men to Manchester, to "repair and man it" as an advanced post of Mercia, but it is unsure what place was meant.^[1] The Roman fort was left to decay, and was used as a quarry for building materials.

The ruins of the fort were visible until the eighteenth century; much of the fort area was obliterated when a main railway line was built across it. There is reconstruction of part of a Roman fort (the North Gate, a section of wall, and the foundations of some barrack and vicus buildings) in Castlefield, which was named after the Roman fort.

The modern name "Manchester" came from Anglo-Saxon Mameceaster, an example of an Anglo-Saxon place name that incorporates a previous Celtic name.

[edit] Medieval growth

Manchester is mentioned in the Domesday Book. It is recorded as a former royal manor, held by Edward the Confessor, and that there was a church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. There is a great deal of argument as to where this church was, but the modern consensus suggests that it was situated near the junction of Market Street and Deansgate, approached by what is still called St. Mary's Gate.

A large part of whatever existed in Saxon times was probably destroyed in the Harrying of the North by William the Conqueror. The 'Honour of Manchester' was probably given to the De Grelle or De Greley family by Roger the Poitevan, who held most of the land between the Ribble and Mersey. The 'Honour' was a collection of manors of which Manchester was the administrative centre. There was a fortified manor house on the site of Chetham's School of Music. The De Grelles (also known as the De Gredley family), and their successors as lords of the manor and Baron of Manchester, were mostly absentees throughout this period, though they used Manchester as a hunting lodge at times - Hunts Bank still recalls the location of their kennels.

Manchester was part of the Hundred of Salford (or Salfordshire), and the township of Salford was part of the ancient parish of Manchester. (The Saxon Royal Hall may have been across the river in Salford) However, the slip of a medieval clerk's pen resulted in dividing Manchester and Salford, for two charters were issued.

In 1223 Manchester gained the right to hold an annual fair and became a market town in 1301 when it received its Charter.

In the 14th century Manchester became home to a community of Flemish weavers, who settled in the town to produce wool and linen, thus beginning the tradition of cloth manufacture. This sparked the growth of the city to become Lancashire's major industrial centre. The ancient parish of Manchester covered a wider area than today's metropolitan borough (although not including its full extent); the various townships and chapelries became separate civil parishes in 1866.

Thomas de la Warre was a Lord of the Manor and also a priest. He obtained licences from the Pope and King Henry V to enable him to found and endow a collegiate church, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, St. George, and St. Denys or St. Denis, the latter being the patron saints of England and France respectively. Construction began around 1422, and continued until the first quarter of the sixteenth century. The 'merchant princes' of the town endowed a number of chantry chapels, reflecting an increasing prosperity based on wool. This church later became Manchester Cathedral.

Thomas also gave the site of the old manor house as a residence for the priests. It remains as one of the finest examples of a medieval secular religious building in Britain, and is now the home of Chetham's School of Music.

A stone bridge (incorporating a chapel) across the Irwell was built at an unspecified date. Thomas rebuilt the bridge across a ravine that had acted as a moat for the manor house, and some remains still survives as the Hanging Bridge.

[edit] Growth of the textile trade

By the sixteenth century, the wool trade had made Manchester a flourishing market town. The collegiate church, nowadays the Cathedral, was finally completed in 1500-1510. The magnificent carved choir stalls date from this period, and a chapel was built by the Earl of Derby as a thank offering for a safe return from the battle of Flodden Field.

The English Reformation resulted in the collegiate church being refounded as a Protestant institution. One of the more famous Wardens of this institution at the time was Dr. John Dee, known as "Queen Elizabeth's Merlin".

The town's growth was given further impetus in 1620 with the start of fustian weaving.

In the course of the seventeenth century, thanks to the development of the textile industry, and contacts with the City of London, Manchester became a noted centre of puritanism. Consequently, it sided with Parliament in the quarrel with Charles I. Indeed, it might be said that the English Civil War started here. In 1642, Lord Strange, the son of the Earl of Derby attempted to seize the militia magazine stored in the old College building. In the ensuing scuffle, Richard Percival, a linen weaver, was killed. He is reckoned by some as the first casualty in the English Civil War.

Lord Strange returned and attempted to besiege the town, which had no permanent fortifications. With the help of John Rosworm, a German mercenary, the town was vigorously defended. Captain Bradshaw and his musketeers resolutely manned the bridge to Salford. Eventually, Strange realised that his force was ill-prepared, and after hearing that his father had died, withdrew to claim his title.

During the Commonwealth, Manchester was granted a seat in Parliament for the first time. Maj Gen Charles Worsley, scion of an old Lancashire family and one of Cromwell's most trusted lieutenants, had been given the Mace at the famous dissolution of Parliament in 1654. Elected Manchester's first MP, he did not sit for long before Parliament was again dissolved, leading to the Rule of the Major Generals: effectively martial law. Worsley, given responsibility for Lancashire, Cheshire and Staffordshire, took his duties seriously, turning out ale houses, banning bear baiting and cracking down on the celebration of Christmas. He eventually died in 1656, at a time of the gradual ebbing away of Cromwell's authority.^[2]

On the English Restoration in 1660, as a reprisal for its defence of the Parliamentarian cause, Manchester was deprived of its recently granted Members of Parliament. No MP was to sit for Manchester until 1832. The consequences of the restoration led to a great deal of soul searching. One clergyman, Henry Newcombe, could not remain in the remodeled Anglican Church, and was instrumental in the establishment of the Cross Street Chapel in 1694. This later passed into Unitarian hands, and a new chapel on the original site can be visited.

Humphrey Chetham purchased the old College buildings after the Civil War, and endowed it as a bluecoat school. Chetham's Hospital, as it was known, later became Chetham's School of Music. The endowment included a collection of books, which in 1653 became Chetham's Library, the first free public library in the English-speaking world. As of 2007, it is still open and free to use.^[3]

Despite the political setbacks, the town continued to prosper. A number of inhabitants supported the Glorious Revolution in 1688. They became discontented with the Tory clergy at the collegiate church, and a separate church, more to their tastes, was founded by Lady Ann Bland. St Ann's Church is a fine example if an early Georgian church, and was consecrated in 1712. The surroundings, what is now St Ann's Square were in imitation of a London square.

About this time, Defoe described the place as "the greatest mere village in England", by which he meant that a place the size of a populous market town had no form of local government to speak of, and was still subject to the whims of a lord of the manor.

In 1745, Charles Edward Stuart and his army entered Manchester en route to London. Despite its previous radicalism, the town offered no resistance, and the Jacobites obtained enough recruits to form an erstwhile 'Manchester Regiment'. It is suggested that this was because the town had no local government to speak of, and the magistrates, who could have organised resistance, were mostly conservative landowners. Moreover, these Tory landowners had taken to apprenticing their sons to Manchester merchants, so the political complexion of the town's elite had changed. The Jacobite army got no further than Derby, and then retreated. On their way back through Manchester, the stragglers were pelted by the mob. The luckless 'Manchester regiment' were left behind to garrison Carlisle, where they quickly surrendered to the pursuing British Army.

[edit] Industrial Revolution

Manchester remained a small market town until the late 18th century, and the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The myriad of small valleys in the Pennine Hills to the north and east of the town, combined with the damp climate, proved ideal for the construction of water-powered Cotton mills such as Quarry Bank Mill, which industrialised the spinning and weaving of cloth.

Indeed, it was the importation of cotton, which began towards the end of the eighteenth century, that revolutionised the textile industry in the area. This new commodity was imported through the port of Liverpool, which was connected with Manchester by the Mersey and Irwell Navigation - the two rivers had been made navigable from the 1720s onwards.

Manchester now developed as the natural distribution centre for raw cotton and spun yarn, and a marketplace and distribution centre for the products of this growing textile industry. Richard Arkwright is credited as the first to erect a cotton mill in the city. His first experiment, installing a Newcomen steam engine to pump water for a waterwheel failed, but he next adapted a Watt steam engine to directly operate the machinery. The result was the rapid spread of cotton mills throughout Manchester itself and in the surrounding towns. To these must be added bleach works, textile print works, and the engineering workshops and foundries, all serving the cotton industry. Manchester was truly "Cottonopolis", and a branch of the Bank of England was established in 1826.

The growth of the city was matched by expansion of its transport links. The growth of steam power meant that demand for coal rocketed. To meet this demand, the first canal of the industrial era, the Duke's Canal, often referred to as the Bridgewater Canal, was opened in 1761, linking Manchester to the coal mines at Worsley. This was soon extended to the Mersey Estuary. Soon an extensive network of canals was constructed, linking Manchester to all parts of England.

In 1830, Manchester was again at the forefront of transport technology with the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the world's first steam passenger railway. This provided faster transport of raw materials and finished goods between the port of Liverpool and mills of Manchester. By 1838, Manchester was connected by rail with Birmingham and London, and by 1841 with Hull.

In this period Manchester grew heavily due to an influx of Flemish settlers who founded Manchester's new cotton industry and sparked the growth of the city to become Lancashire's major industrial centre. The ancient parish of Manchester covered a wider area than today's metropolitan borough (although not including its full extent), with the various townships and chapelries becoming recognised as separate civil parishes in 1866.

During the 19th century Manchester grew to become to the centre of Lancashire's cotton industry and was dubbed "Cottonopolis". During this period Manchester had its world famous canal system built as well as the famous Liverpool and Manchester Railway.

Manchester quickly grew into a significant industrial centre. The pace of change was fast and frightening. At that time, it seemed a place in which anything could happen - new industrial processes, new ways of thinking (the so called 'Manchester School', promoting free trade and laissez-faire), new classes or groups in society, new religious sects, and new forms of labour organisation. It attracted educated visitors from all parts of Britain and Europe. "What Manchester does today," it was said, "the rest of the world does tomorrow." Benjamin Disraeli, at that time a young novelist, had one of his characters express such sentiments. "The age of ruins is past....Have you seen Manchester? Manchester is as great a human exploit as Athens..."

Manchester’s population exploded as people moved from the surrounding countryside, and from other parts of the British Isles, into the city seeking new opportunities. Particularly large numbers came from Ireland , especially after the Potato Famine of the 1840s. The Irish influence continues to this day and, every March Manchester plays host to a large St Patricks Day parade. It is estimated that about 35% of the population of Manchester and Salford has at least some Irish ancestry.

Large numbers of (mostly Jewish) immigrants later came to Manchester from central and eastern Europe. The area, including Salford and Prestwich, today has a Jewish population of about 40,000. This is the largest Jewish community outside London by quite some way. To these groups may be added (in later years) Levantines (involved in the Egyptian cotton trade), Germans, and Italians. By the end of the nineteenth century, Manchester was a very cosmopolitan place.

This unconventional background stimulated the intellectual and artistic life of the place. The Manchester Academy, for example, opened in Mosely Street in 1786, having enjoyed an earlier incarnation as the Warrington Academy. It was originally run by presbyterians being one of the few dissenting academies that provided religious nonconformists, who were excluded from Oxford and Cambridge Universities, with education. It taught classics, radical theology, science, modern languages, language and history. In the arts, one only has to mention the Halle Orchestra, patronised, in its early years, by the German community.

[edit] Reform

At the beginning of the 19th century, Manchester was still governed by a court leet on the medieval model, and a Boroughreeve was responsible for law and order during the daylight hours. The Manchester and Salford Police Act of 1792 created Police Commissioners, whose job was to provide a night-watch. The commissioners were also given responsibility for road-building, street cleaning, street lighting, and the maintenance of fire engines.^[4]

The end of the 18th century saw the first serious recession in the textile trade. There were food riots in 1797, and soup kitchens were established in 1799. Manchester was the scene of the Blanketeer agitation in 1817. Popular unrest was paralleled by discontent with Manchester's lack of representation at Westminster, and the town quickly became a centre of radical agitation.

Protest turned to bloodshed in the summer of 1819. A meeting was held in St Peter’s Field on 16 August to demonstrate for parliamentary reform. It was addressed by Henry Hunt, a powerful speaker known as Orator Hunt. Local magistrates, fearful of the large crowd estimated at 60,000–80,000, ordered volunteer yeomanry cavalry armed with sabres to clear a way through the crowd to arrest Hunt and the platform party. They lost control (some reports suggest that many were drunk) and started to strike out at members of the crowd. The magistrates, believing that the yeomanry were under attack, then ordered the 15th Hussars to disperse the crowd, which they did by charging into the mass of men, women and children, sabres drawn. These events resulted in the deaths of fifteen people and over six hundred injured. The name "Peterloo" was coined immediately by the radical Manchester Observer, combining the name of the meeting place, St Peter's Field, with the Battle of Waterloo fought four years earlier. One of those who later died from his wounds had been present at Waterloo, and told a friend shortly before his death that he had never been in such danger as at Peterloo: "At Waterloo there was man to man but there it was downright murder."^[5]

The Manchester Guardian, a newspaper with a radical agenda, was established shortly afterwards.

In 1832, following the Great Reform Act, Manchester elected its first MPs since the election of 1656. Five candidates, including William Cobbett stood and Liberals Charles Poulett Thomson and Mark Philips were elected.

The Great Reform Act led to conditions favourable to municipal incorporation. Manchester became a Municipal Borough in 1837, and what remained of the manorial rights were later purchased by the town council.

This flowering of radicalism and reform took place within the context of a ferment in Manchester's cultural and intellectual life. John Dalton lectured on his atomic theory at the Literary and Philosophical Society in 1803. The establishment of the Portico Library in1806, the Royal Manchester Institution (later the Art Gallery) in 1823), and the Manchester Botanical and Horticultural Society in 1827 are evidences of this.

[edit] Industrial and cultural growth

The prosperity from the textile industry lead to an expansion of Manchester and the surrounding conurbation. Many institutions were established including Belle Vue leisure gardens and zoo (founded by John Jennison in 1836), the Manchester Athenaeum (1836-1837), the Corn Exchange (1837) and the Royal Victoria Gallery of Practical Science (1840-2).

This wealth fuelled the development of science and education in Manchester. The Manchester Academy had relocated to York in 1803 and, though it returned in 1840, in 1853 it moved again to London, eventually becoming Harris Manchester College, Oxford. However, a Mechanics' Institute, later to become UMIST, was founded in 1824 by among others, John Dalton the "father of atomic theory". In 1851 John Owens, a textile merchant left a bequest to found Owens College which immediately absorbed the Mount Street School of Anatomy, founded in 1814, the first medical school in England outside Oxford, Cambridge and London. Owens College was to become the Victoria University of Manchester and was granted its Royal Charter in 1880.

The growth of city government continued with Manchester finally being incorporated as a borough in 1838, covering what is now the city centre, along with Cheetham, Beswick, Ardwick, Chorlton upon Medlock and Hulme.

In 1841, Robert Angus Smith took up work as an analytical chemist at the Royal Manchester Institution and started to research the unprecedented environmental problems. Smith went on to become the first director of the Alkali Inspectorate and to characterise, and coin the term, acid rain.

Manchester continued to be a nexus of political radicalism. From 1842-1844, the German social philosopher Friedrich Engels lived there and wrote his influential book Condition of the Working Class in England (1845). He met with Karl Marx in an alcove at Chetham's Library.

In 1846 the Borough bought the manorial rights from the Mosley family and the granting of city status followed in 1853.

In 1847 the Manchester diocese of the Church of England was established.

In 1851, the Borough became the first local authority to seek water supplies beyond its boundaries.

By 1853, the number of cotton mills in Manchester had reached its peak of 108.^[6]

The Cooperative Wholesale Society was formed in 1862.

The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 saw an immediate shortage of cotton and the ensuing cotton famine brought enormous distress to the area until the war ended in 1865.

The first Trades Union Congress was held in Manchester (at the Mechanics' Institute, David Street), from 2 to 6 June 1868. Manchester was the subject of Freidrich Engels' The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, Engels himself spending much of his life in and around Manchester. Manchester was also an important cradle of the Labour Party and the Suffragette Movement.

Manchester's golden age was perhaps the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Many of the great public buildings (including the Town Hall) date from then. The city's cosmopolitan atmosphere contributed to a vibrant culture, which included the Hallé Orchestra. In 1889, when county councils were created in England, the municipal borough became a county borough with even greater autonomy.

During the late 19th century Manchester began to suffer an economic decline, partly exacerbated by its reliance on the Port of Liverpool, which was charging excessive dock usage fees. Championed by local industrialist Daniel Adamson, the Manchester Ship Canal was built as a way to reverse this. It gave the city direct access to the sea allowing it to export its manufactured goods directly. This meant that it no longer had to rely on the railways and Liverpool's ports. When completed in 1894 it allowed Manchester to become Britain's third busiest port, despite being 40 miles (64 km) inland. The Manchester Ship Canal was created by canalising the Rivers Irwell and Mersey for 36 miles from Salford to the Mersey estuary at the port of Liverpool. This enabled ocean going ships to sail right into the Port of Manchester Docks (technically in Salford). The docks functioned until the 1970s, when their closure led to a large increase in unemployment in the area.

Trafford Park in Stretford (outside the ciy boundaries) was the world's first industrial estate and still exists today, though with a significant tourist and recreational presence. Manchester suffered greatly from the inter-war depression and the underlying structural changes that began to supplant the old industries, including textile manufacture.

[edit] Further expansion

Expansion of the city limits was constrained westwards (with the borough of Salford immediately to the west, having been given a charter in 1844). These areas were included in the city limits of Manchester at these dates:-

• 1885: Harpurhey, Bradford-with-Beswick, Rusholme
• 1890: Crumpsall, Blackley and Moston, Newton Heath, Clayton, Openshaw, West Gorton
• 1903: Heaton Park. So far most expansion had been northerly and easterly.
• 1904: Moss Side, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Withington, Burnage, Didsbury, all to the south.
• 1909: Gorton, Levenshulme.
• 1931: The parishes of Northenden, Baguley, and Northern Etchells, beyond the River Mersey, previously in Bucklow Rural District in Cheshire. They later formed the Wythenshawe housing estate. This followed an unsuccessful attempt to annex the same area in 1927.^[7]
• 1974 (Local Government Act 1972): Ringway, Manchester International Airport.

[edit] Twentieth century

By 1900 the Manchester city region was the 9th most populous in the world.^[8] In the early 20th century Manchester's economy diversified into engineering chemical and electrical industries. The stimulus of the Ship Canal saw the establishment of Trafford Park, the world's first industrial park, in 1910 and the arrival of the Ford Motor Company and Westinghouse Electric Corporation from the USA. The influence is still visible in "Westinghouse Road" and a grid layout of numbered streets and avenues.

In 1931 the population of Manchester reached an all-time peak of 766,311. However the period from the 1930s onwards saw continuous decline in population. During this period, textile manufacture, Manchester's traditional staple industry went into steep decline, largely due to the Great Depression of the 1930s, and foreign competition.

[edit] World War II

In the Second World War Manchester played a key role as an industrial manufacturing city, including the Avro aircraft factory (now BAE Systems) which built countless aircraft for the RAF, the most famous being the Avro Lancaster bomber. As a consequence of its war efforts the city suffered heavily from bombing during The Blitz in 1940 to 1941. It was attacked a number of times by the Luftwaffe, particularly in the "Christmas Blitz" of 1941, which destroyed a large part of the historic city centre and seriously damaged the Cathedral.

[edit] Postwar

The Royal Exchange ceased trading in 1968.

The 1950s saw the start of Manchester's rise as a football superpower. Despite the Munich air disaster, Manchester United F.C. went on to become one of the world's most famous clubs, rising to a dominance of the English game in the 1990s.

Mancunian Films had been established by John E. Blakeley in the 1930s as a vehicle for northern comedians such as George Formby and Frank Randle. The company opened its own studios in Manchester in 1947 and produced a successful sequence of films until Blakeley's retirement six years later. The studio was sold to the BBC in 1954, the same year that saw the advent of commercial television in the UK. The establishment of Granada Television based in the city attracted much of the production talent from the studios and continued Manchester's tradition of cultural innovation, often with its trademark social radicalism in its programming.

The same period saw the rise to national celebrity of local stars from the Granada TV soap opera Coronation Street and footballers such as George Best.

As with many British cities during the period. The 1950s and 1960s saw extensive re-development of the city, with old and overcrowded housing cleared to make way for high-rise blocks of flats. This changed the appearance of Manchester considerably, although the high-rise experiment later proved unpopular and unsuccessful. The city-centre also saw major re-development, with developments such as the Manchester Arndale.

Manchester's key role in the industrial revolution was repeated and the city became a centre of research and development. Manchester made important contributions the computer revolution. The father of modern computing Alan Turing was based at Manchester University and it was his idea of the stored program concept that lead in 1948 to The Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine, nicknamed Baby, which was the first stored-program computer to run a program. This was developed by Frederic C. Williams and Tom Kilburn at the University of Manchester. This was followed by The Manchester Mark I, in 1949. These inventions were commercialized in the Ferranti Star, one of the first commercially available computers.

In 1974, Manchester was split from the county of Lancashire, and the Metropolitan Borough of Manchester was created.

The diversification of the city's economy helped to cushion the blow of this decline. However, as with many inner-city areas, the growth of car ownership and commuting meant that many people moved from the inner-city and into surrounding suburbs. By 1971 the population of Manchester had declined to 543,868, and by 2001 422,302.

[edit] The IRA bomb and its effects

During the 1980s, with the demise of many traditional industries under the radical economic restructuring often known as Thatcherism, the city and region experienced some decline. Revival started towards the end of the decade, catalysed, not only by a wider growing prosperity in the UK, but by a creative music industry. New institutions such as Factory Records and Fac 51 Hacienda earned the city the sobriquet Madchester.

At 11.20 am on Saturday 15 June 1996, the IRA detonated a large bomb in the city centre, the largest to be detonated on British soil. Fortunately warnings given in the previous hour had allowed the evacuation of the immediate area, so this bomb caused over 200 injuries but no deaths. The principal damage was to the physical infrastructure of nearby buildings. Since then the city centre has undergone extensive rejuvenation alongside the more general efforts to regenerate previously run-down areas of the wider city (such as Hulme and Salford). This reconstruction spurred a massive regeneration of the city centre, with complexes such as The Printworks and the Triangle creating new city focal points for both shopping and entertainment. The following regeneration took over a decade to complete. The completion of the renovated Manchester Arndale in September 2006 allowed the centre to hold the title of the UK's largest city centre shopping mall.^[9]

[edit] Around and after 2000

In 2002, the city hosted the XVII Commonwealth Games very successfully, earning praise from many previously sceptical sources. Manchester has twice failed in its bid to host the Olympic Games, losing to Atlanta in 1996 and Sydney in 2000.

In the 1990s, Manchester earned a reputation for gang-related crime, particularly after a spate of shootings involving young men, and reports of teenagers carrying handguns as "fashion accessories". Gun-crime is still a problem in Manchester (some have referred to the city as "Gunchester") and a number of initiatives are in place by the Greater Manchester Police in an attempt to reduce the number of youths getting involved with gangs and their associated crimes. However, the success of this is questionable as gun crime in the area is still increasing and is at a level significantly above comparable areas of the UK.^[10] The district of Moss Side gained a particular reputation for gang violence, and has seen substantial community and police initiatives attempting to rejuvenate the area. In 2004 anti-social behaviour orders were widely used to combat minor crime.

The Canal Street area of the city is well known as the "Gay Village". Manchester’s claim to status of "gay capital of the UK" was strengthened in 2003 when it played host city to the annual Europride festival.^[11][12]

During the 1980s, the Victoria University of Manchester had somewhat complacently exploited its reputation as one of the leading red brick universities. During the same period, many of those universities established post-war vigorously pursued policies of growth and innovation. The university consequently saw its standing decline and only in the 1990s did it embark on a catch-up programme. In October 2004 the Victoria University of Manchester and UMIST merged to form the University of Manchester, the largest University in the UK with ambitious plans to be one of the world's leading research intensive universities.

Since the regeneration after the 1996 IRA bomb, and aided by the XVII Commonwealth Games, Manchester's city centre has changed significantly. Large sections of the city dating from the 1960s have been either demolished and re-developed or modernised with the use of glass and steel; a good example of this transformation is the Manchester Arndale. Many old mills and textile warehouses have been converted into apartments, helping to give the city a much more modern, upmarket look and feel. Some areas, like Hulme, have undergone extensive regeneration programmes and many million-pound lofthouse apartments have since been developed to cater for its growing business community. The 168 metre tall, 47-storey Beetham Tower, completed in 2006, provides the highest residential accommodation in the United Kingdom - the lower 23 floors form the Hilton Hotel, while the upper 24 floors are apartments. The Beetham Tower was originally planned to stand 171 metres in height, but this had to be changed due to local wind conditions.^[13]

Rapidly developing institutions attract crime and disorder; see main article crime and policing in Manchester.

Parts of the city were severely affected by rioting by Rangers fans in 2008; see main article 2008 UEFA Cup Final riots

[edit] Civic history

The town of Manchester (as it was then) was granted a charter in 1301 by Thomas de Grelley, Baron of Manchester, who was also the Lord of the Manor of Manchester.^[14]

Until the 19th century, Manchester was one of the many townships in the ancient parish of Manchester which covered a wider area than today's metropolitan borough.

In 1792 commissioners, usually known as police commissioners, were established for the improvement of the Township of Manchester. By the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, the Borough of Manchester was established in 1838 as a local authority, which included the areas of Manchester, Beswick, Cheetham, Chorlton-on-Medlock and Hulme townships.^[14]

On the 11 December 1840, the Manchester Poor Law Union was formally declared and took responsibility for the administration and funding of the Poor Law in the area.^[15]

In 1853 the Borough was elevated to City status. In 1885 further areas were added to the City of Manchester with Bradford, Harpurhey, Rusholme and parts of Moss Side and Withington townships.

By the Local Government Act 1888, the City of Manchester became in 1889 a County Borough, although it still kept the city title.^[14]

Other areas, which had been under the control of Lancashire County Council, were added to the City between 1890 and 1933:

• 1890: Blackley, Crumpsall, Moston, Openshaw and Newton (incl. Kirkmanshulme) townships, Clayton area (part of Droylsden township) and part of Gorton township.
• 1901: A very small part of Gorton Urban District.
• 1903: Part (Heaton Park area) of Prestwich Urban District.
• 1904: Burnage, Didsbury and Chorlton cum Hardy civil parishes and Moss Side and Withington Urban Districts.
• 1909: Levenshulme Urban District and the remaining area of Gorton Urban District.
• 1913: Part of Heaton Norris Urban District.
• 1933: Part of Denton Urban District.
• In addition to these areas, in 1931 the Cheshire civil parishes of Baguley, Northenden and Northern Etchells were also added to the City of Manchester.^[14]

Under the Local Government Act 1972, the City of Manchester, with the addition of the civil parish of Ringway, became on the 1 April 1974 one of the ten Metropolitan Boroughs of the newly created Metropolitan County of Greater Manchester.

In 1986 Greater Manchester County Council was abolished by the Local Government Act 1985 and most of its functions were devolved to the ten boroughs, making them effectively unitary authorities. Some of the County Council's functions were taken over by joint bodies such as Passenger Transport Authorities, and joint fire, police and waste disposal authorities.

The M postcode area has three separate post towns, Manchester, Salford and Sale. The M postcode area borders the postal areas of BL (Bolton), OL (Oldham), SK (Stockport), WA (Warrington) and WN (Wigan).

[edit] Greater Manchester

Before 1974 the area of Greater Manchester was split between Cheshire and Lancashire with numerous parts being independent county boroughs. The area was informally known as "SELNEC", for "South East Lancashire North East Cheshire". Also small parts of the West Riding of Yorkshire (around Saddleworth) and Derbyshire were covered.

SELNEC had been proposed by the Redcliffe-Maud Report of 1969 as a "metropolitan area". This had roughly the same northern boundary as today's Greater Manchester, but covered much more territory in north-east Cheshire – including Macclesfield and Warrington. It also covered Glossop in Derbyshire.

In 1969 a SELNEC Passenger Transport Authority was set up, which covered an area smaller than the proposed SELNEC, but different from the eventual Greater Manchester.

Although the Redcliffe-Maud report was rejected by the Conservative Party government after it won the 1970 general election, it was committed to local government reform, and accepted the need for a county based on Manchester. Its original proposal was much smaller than the Redcliffe-Maud Report's SELNEC, but further fringe areas such as Wilmslow, Warrington and Glossop were trimmed from the edges and included instead in the shire counties. The metropolitan county of Greater Manchester was eventually established in 1974.

Greater Manchester's representative county council was abolished in 1986, following the Local Government Act 1985. However, Greater Manchester is still a metropolitan county and ceremonial county.

[edit] See also

• History of England
• Industrial Revolution
• List of famous Mancunians
• Crime and policing in Manchester

[edit] Textiles

• Cottonopolis
• Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution

[edit] Railway history

• Stephenson's Rocket
• Liverpool and Manchester Railway
• Manchester Victoria station
• Manchester Piccadilly station
• Beyer-Peacock

[edit] Universities

• University of Manchester
• Manchester Metropolitan University
• University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology
• Victoria University of Manchester

[edit] Manchester's famous scientists

• John Dalton, famous for atomic theory
• James Joule, physicist after whom the SI unit of energy was named
• J. J. Thomson, discovered the electron
• Ernest Rutherford, discovered the nuclear nature of atom
• Alan Turing, one of the founders of computer science.
• Bernard Lovell founder of Radio Astronomy.

[edit] Manchester's famous engineers

• Joseph Whitworth, innovator in precise mechanical measurement and standardization of screw threads.
• Tom Kilburn computer pioneer
• Freddie Williams computer pioneer
• Charles Beyer locomotive engineer
• William Fairbairn structural engineer
• Peter Ewart, steam and water power
• Eaton Hodgkinson pioneer of mathematics in structural engineering
• Richard Peacock locomotive engineer
• Richard Roberts, pioneer of precision engineering

[edit] Other well-known Manchester residents

• Elizabeth Gaskell, novelist and biographer
• Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Sylvia Pankhurst, Christabel Pankhurst and Adela Pankhurst, suffragettes
• John Byrom poet, hymn writer and early developer of a system of shorthand

[edit] Further reading

• Kargon, R.H. (1977). Science in Victorian Manchester: Enterprise and Expertise. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-0701-1. 
• Manchester A Short History Of Its Development, by W.H. Shercliff 1977
• Manchester, by Alan Kidd (2002) Edinburgh University Press ISBN 0-7486-1551-2
• Gregory, Richard A., Roman Manchester: The University of Manchester's Excavations within the Vicus 2001-2005 (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2007), Pp. vii, 197.

[edit] External links

• Manchester chronology
• Image of Deansgate in Manchester, with trams, about 1910
• The English Civil War in Manchester

[edit] References

[edit] Bibliography

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