Greek orthography

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The orthography of the Greek language ultimately has its roots in the adoption of the Greek alphabet in the 9th century BC. Some time prior to that, one early form of Greek, Mycenaean, was written in Linear B, although there was a lapse of several centuries (the Greek Dark Ages) between the time Mycenaean stopped being written and the time when the Greek alphabet came into use.

Early Greek writing in the Greek alphabet was phonemic, and different in each dialect. Since the adoption of the Ionic variant for Attic in 403 BC, however, Greek orthography has been largely conservative and historical. Given the phonetic development of Greek, especially in the Hellenistic period, certain modern vowel phonemes have multiple orthographic realizations:

/i/ can be written as η, ι, υ, ει, οι or υι (cf. Iotacism);
/e/ can be written as both ε and αι;
/o/ can be written as both ο and ω.

This affects not only lexical items but also inflectional affixes, so correct orthography requires mastery of formal grammar (as in French), e.g. η καλή /i kaˈli/ 'the good one (fem. sing.)' vs. οι καλοί /i kaˈli/ 'the good ones (masc. pl.)'; καλώ /kaˈlo/ 'I call' vs. καλό /kaˈlo/ 'good (neut. sing.)'.

1 Digraphs and diphthongs
2 Diacritics
3 See also
4 External links

[edit] Digraphs and diphthongs

A digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. The orthography of Greek includes several digraphs, including various pairs of vowel letters that used to be pronounced as diphthongs but have been shortened to monophthongs in pronunciation. Many of these are characteristic developments of modern Greek, but some were already present in Classical Greek. None of them is regarded as a letter of the alphabet.

During the Byzantine period, it became customary to write the silent iota in digraphs as an iota subscript.

Letters	Transliteration		Pronunciation
Letters	Ancient Greek	Modern Greek	Classical Ancient Greek	Modern Greek
ᾰι, αι	ai	e	[aɪ]	[e̞]
ᾳ	āi	a	[aːj]	[a]
ει	ei	i	[eː]	[i]
ῃ	ēi	i	[ɛːj]	[i]
οι	oi	i	[oɪ]	[i]
υι	ui	i	[yː]*	[i]
ῳ	ōi	o	[ɔːj]	[o̞]
ᾰυ, αυ	au	av, af	[aʊ]	[av] before vowel or voiced consonant; [af] before voiceless sound
ᾱυ, αυ	āu	av, af	[aːʊ]	[av] before vowel or voiced consonant; [af] before voiceless sound
ευ	eu	ev, ef	[eʊ]	[e̞v] before vowel or voiced consonant; [e̞f] before voiceless sound
ηυ	ēu	iv, if	[ɛːʊ]	[iv] before vowel or voiced consonant; [if] before voiceless sound
ου	ou	u	[uː] earlier [oː]	[u]
ωυ	ōü	oi	[ɔː.u]**	[oi]
γγ	ng	ng, ny, g, y, ngh	[ŋɡ]	[ŋɡ] in formal speech (palatalised to [ŋɟ] before [e̞] or [i]), but often reduced to [ɡ] (palatalised to [ɟ] before [e̞] or [i]); also pronounced [ŋɣ] in some contexts (palatalised to [ŋʝ] before [e̞])
γκ	nc	g, y, ng, ny	[ŋk]	[ɡ] at the beginning of a word (palatalised to [ɟ] before [e̞] or [i]); [ŋɡ] otherwise (palatalised to [ŋɟ] before [e̞] or [i]), but often reduced to [ɡ] (palatalised to [ɟ] before [e̞] or [i])
γξ	nx	nx	[ŋks]	[ŋks]
γχ	nkh	nch, nkh	[ŋkʰ]	[ɲç] before [e̞] or [i]; [ŋx] otherwise
μπ	mp	b, mb	[mp]	[b] at the beginning of a word; [mb] otherwise, but often reduced to [b]
ντ	nt	d, nd	[nt]	[d] at the beginning of a word; [nd] otherwise, but often reduced to [d]

* The diphthong υι [yi] was monophthongized to [yː] in Classical Attic Greek, but survives in some other contemporary dialects and in early Koine.

** The diphthong ωυ [ɔːu] was found in Ionic and in certain Hebrew transcriptions in the Greek Bible, but it did not occur in Attic, and was gradually lost in Koine. Where ωυ was atticized, it was often split into two separate syllables [ɔː.y], hence the Latin transcription ōy. Perhaps the clearest example of this is the Biblical Greek name Μωυσῆς [mɔːu.sɛ̑ːs] (Moses), which was atticized as Μωϋσῆς [mɔː.y.sɛ̑ːs], then adapted to early Christian Latin as Mōysēs, from where it became Spanish Moisés, French Moïse, etc. The modern Greek form is Μωυσής [mo̞iˈsis], whereas the modern Latin Vulgate form is Mōsēs.

It is discussed among scholars whether the velar nasal [ŋ] (ἄγμα, agma) should be regarded as an allophone of /n/ or a phoneme in its own right in Greek.

[edit] Diacritics

Main article: Greek diacritics

The polytonic spelling uses a variety of diacritics to represent aspects of the pronunciation of ancient Greek. Polytonic, along with lowercase letters, became standard in Byzantine Greek. The orthographies of modern Greek, both katharevousa and dhimotiki, used the polytonic system until 1982, when the monotonic spelling was introduced. In some conservative contexts, such as the Church, polytonic spellings are still used.

The monotonic orthography is the simplified spelling introduced in 1982 for modern Greek. It replaced the ancient diacritics with just two: the acute accent (tónos, e.g. ί), used to mark the stressed syllable in polysyllabic words, and the diaeresis (dialytiká, e.g. ϊ), used to mark a hiatus.