Cleomenean War

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The Cleomenean War^[2] (229 BC/228 BC – 222 BC) was fought between Sparta and its ally Elis against the Achaean League and Macedon. The war ended in a Macedonian and Achaean victory.

In 235 BC, Cleomenes III ascended the throne of Sparta and began a program of reform to restore the old Spartan discipline and depose the ephors. When the ephors sent Cleomenes to seize a town on the border with Megalopolis, the Achaeans declared war in 229 BC. Cleomenes responded by ravaging Achaea; he defeated an army under Aratus sent to attack Elis at Mount Lycaeum, and second army near Megalopolis. In inner politics he ordered the killing of the ephors in meantime.

In quick succession, Cleomenes cleared the cities of Arcadia of their Achaean garrisons before crushing another Achaean force at Dyme. Facing Spartan domination of the League, Aratus was forced to turn to Antigonus III Doson of Macedon to help the Achaeans defeat the Spartans. In return for Macedonian assistance, the Achaeans had to surrender Acrocorinth to Antigonus. Cleomenes invaded Achaea and took control of both Corinth and Argos, but, when Antigonus arrived in the Peloponnese, Cleomenes was forced to retreat to Laconia. He fought the Achaeans and the Macedonians at Sellasia, but the Spartans were routed. He fled to the court of his ally, Ptolemy III of Egypt, where he eventually committed suicide after a failed revolt.

[edit] Prelude

Cleomenes III ascended the throne of Sparta in 236 BC or 235 BC, after deposing his father Leonidas II, in a decade where dispute between the two royal families were at a peak. During the turmoil, Leonidas II had executed his rival king, the reformist Agis IV.^[3]

In 229 BC, Cleomenes took the cities Tegea, Mantineia, Caphyae and Orchomenus in Arcadia, who had by then allied themselves with the Aetolian League. Historians Polybius and Sir William Smith claim that Cleomenes seized the city by treachery; however, the translator of Plutarch on Sparta, Richard Talbert, says Cleomenes took them at their own request.^[4] Later that year, the ephors sent Cleomenes to seize the Athenaeum, which was near Belbina, one of the entrance points into Laconia, disputed at the time between Sparta and Megalopolis. Meanwhile, the Achaean League summoned a meeting of her assembly and declared war against Sparta. Cleomenes in return fortified the position; in retaliation, Aratus of Sicyon, the strategus of the Achaean League, tried to take Tegea and Orchomenus in a night attack. Efforts from inside the city failed, causing Aratus to retreat, hoping to remain unnoticed.^[4]a[›]

Cleomenes discovered the plan, and sent a message to Aratus asking about the goal of the expedition. Aratus replied that he had come to stop Cleomenes from fortifying Belbina. Cleomenes responded to this by saying: "if it's all the same to you, write and tell me why you brought along those torches and ladders."^[5]

[edit] Early years and success

A map of the Southern Peloponnese

After fortifying Belbina, Cleomenes advanced into Arcadia with 3,000 infantry and a few cavalry. However, he was called back by the ephors, which allowed Aratus to seize Caphyae as soon as Cleomenes returned to Laconia. Once this news reached Sparta, the ephors sent Cleomenes out again; he managed to capture the Megalopian city Methydrium before ravaging the land around Argos.^[5]

Around this time, the Achaean League sent an army under a new strategus—Aristomachos of Argos, who had been elected in May of 228 BC—to meet Cleomenes in battle. The Achaean army of 20,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry advanced on the 5,000-strong Spartan army at Pallantium. Aratus, who had accompanied Aristomachus, advised him to retreat. Smith agrees with Aratus' assessment that 20,000 Achaeans were no match for 5,000 Spartans.^[5]

Meanwhile, Ptolemy III of Egypt, who had been an ally of the Achaean League in their wars against Macedon, shifted his financial support to Sparta. Ptolemy made this decision after calculating that a resurgent Sparta would be a more valuable ally against Macedon than the Achaean League.^[6]

In May 227 BC, Aratus was once again elected strategus and attacked Elis. The Elians appealed to Sparta for aid; as the Achaeans were returning from Elis, Cleomenes attacked and routed their entire army near Mount Lycaeum. Taking advantage of a rumour that he had been killed during the fighting, Aratus attacked and seized Mantinea.^[7]

Meanwhile, the Eurypontid King Eudamidas III, son of Agis IV, died. Pausanias claims that Cleomenes had him poisoned.^[8] Cleomenes recalled his uncle Archidamus V from his exile in Messene to ascend the Eurypontid throne, but as soon as Archidamus returned to the city, he was assassinated. Cleomenes' involvement in the plot is unclear, since ancient sources contradict each other: Polybius claims that Cleomenes ordered the murder, but Plutarch disagrees.^[7]

[edit] Battle of Ladoceia and reforms

Traditional Greek phalanx with spears and large shields(aspis)

Later that year, Cleomenes bribed the ephors to allow him to continue his campaign against the Achaeans. Having succeeded in his bribe, Cleomenes advanced into the territory of Megalopolis and captured the village of Leuctra. In response, an Achaean army arrived, relieved the city and inflicted a minor defeat on the part of the Spartan army nearest to the city walls. Cleomenes was therefore obliged to retreat with his troops across a series of ravines. Aratus ordered the Achaeans not to pursue the Spartans across the ravine, but Lydiadas of Megalopolis disobeyed the order and charged with the cavalry in pursuit of the Spartans. Taking advantage of the difficult terrain and the scattered cavalry, Cleomenes sent his Cretan and Tarentine soldiers against Lydiadas. They routed the cavalry, and Lydiadas was amongst the dead. The Spartans, encouraged by these events, charged against the main Achaean forces and routed the entire army. The Achaeans were so disgusted and discouraged by Aratus' failure to support Lydiadas that they made no further attacks in that year.^[9]

Cleomenes, who was now confident of his strong position, began plotting against the ephors. He first recruited his step-father by saying that they needed to get rid of the ephors; they could then make their property common to all citizens and make Sparta supreme in Greece. Having won over his step-father, Cleomenes started preparing his revolution. Using the men he considered most likely to oppose him, he captured Heraea and Asea. He also brought in food for the citizens of Orchomenus—which the Achaeans were besieging—before camping outside Mantinea. This campaign wore out his opponents, who asked to be left in Arcadia so they could rest. Cleomenes then advanced upon Sparta with his mercenaries and sent some loyal followers to kill the ephors. All of the five ephors were killed except for Agylaeus, who managed to escape and sought sanctuary in a temple.^[10]

With the ephors out of the way, Cleomenes started his reforms. First he handed over his land to the state; he was soon followed by his step-father and his friends, and then by the rest of the citizens. He divided up all the land and gave an equal lot to every citizen. He increased the citizen population by making some perioeci citizens, then trained 4,000 hoplites and restored the old Spartan social and military discipline. Cleomenes greatly strengthened his army by introducing the Macedonian sarissa (pike). He completed his reforms by placing his brother, Eucleidas, in charge, making him the first Agiad king on the Eurypontid throne.^[11]

[edit] Domination of the Peloponnese

A coin depicting Ptolemy III of Egypt

Meanwhile, Ptolemy III of Egypt offered to assist Cleomenes in return for the Spartan King's mother and children as hostages. Cleomenes hesitated until his mother heard about Ptolemy's offer and went voluntarily to Egypt.^[12]

In 226 BC, the citizens of Mantinea appealed to Cleomenes to expel the Achaean garrison from the city. One night, he crept into the city and expelled the Achaean garrison before marching off to Tegea. From Tegea, the Spartans advanced into Achaea, where Cleomenes hoped to force the League to meet him in a pitched battle. Cleomenes advanced with his army to Dyme and was met by the entire Achaean army. In the battle that followed, the Spartans routed the Achaean phalanx killing many of the Achaeans and capturing others. Following this victory, Cleomenes captured the city of Lasium and gave it to the Elians.^[13]

The Achaean League was demoralized by this battle, Aratus declined the generalship and when both Athens and the Aetolian League turned down their appeals, they asked Cleomenes for peace.^[14] At first, Cleomenes made only small requests from the Achaean delegates; the Achaeans kept sending ambassadors, however, and Cleomenes demanded that leadership of the League be surrendered to him; in exchange he would return to the Achaeans the prisoners and the strongholds he had seized. The Achaeans invited Cleomenes to Lerna, where they were holding council. Cleomenes, while marching there, drank too much water; this caused him to lose his voice and bring up blood, forcing a return to Sparta.^[15]

Aratus took advantage of this event, and started plotting with King Antigonus III Doson of Macedon. Previously, in 227 BC, two ambassadors from Megalopolis were sent to Macedon requesting help. Antigonus was not interested at the time, and these efforts failed.^[16] He wanted the Macedonian king to come to the Peloponnese and defeat Cleomenes in return for control of Acrocorinth.^[17] This was not a sacrifice the League was willing to make.^[18] The German historian Barthold Georg Niebuhr criticizes Aratus' alliance with Macedon, arguing that "old Aratus sacrificed the freedom of his country by an act of high treason, and gave up Corinth rather than establish the freedom of Greece by a union among the Peloponnesians, which would have secured to Cleomenes the influence and power he deserved."^[19]

When the Achaeans arrived at Argos for an assembly, Cleomenes came down from Tegea to meet them. But Aratus—who had reached an agreement with Antigonus—demanded that Cleomenes give 300 hostages to the Achaeans and come to the city alone, or approach the city with all his forces. When this message reached Cleomenes, he declared that he had been wronged and once again declared war on the Acheans.^[20]

Achaea was now in turmoil and some cities were close to revolting; they were angry that Aratus had invited the Macedonians into the Peloponnese. They also hoped that Cleomenes would impose constitutional changes in their cities. Encouraged by this, Cleomenes invaded Achaea and seized the cities of Pellene, Pheneus and Penteleium. The Achaeans, worried about developing treachery in Corinth and Sicyon, dispatched their mercenaries to garrison the cities, then went to Argos to celebrate the Nemean Games.^[20]

Cleomenes estimated that Argos would be easier to capture while filled with festival-goers and spectators to cause panic. During the night, he seized the rugged area above the city's theatre. The people of the city were too terrified to offer resistance. They accepted a garrison, delivered twenty hostages to Cleomenes and became Spartan allies.^[21] The capture of Argos gave Cleomenes' reputation a massive boost, since no Spartan King had ever managed to seize Argos. Even Pyrrhus, one the most famous generals of the age, was killed while trying to take the city.^[22]

Soon after the seizure of Argos, Cleonae and Phlius surrendered themselves to Cleomenes. Meanwhile, Aratus was in Corinth investigating those suspected of supporting Sparta. When he heard what had happened at Corinth, Aratus expected the city to fall to Sparta. He summoned an assembly and, with all the citizens present, he took his horse and fled to Sicyon. The Corinthians did surrender the city to Cleomenes, but the Spartan king criticized them for failing to arrest Aratus. Cleomenes sent his step-father Megistonous to Aratus, asking for the surrender of Acrocorinth—the citadel of Corinth, which had an Achaean garrison—in return for a large amount of money.^[23]

In quick succession, Hermione, Troezen and Epidaurus surrendered to Cleomenes, who went from Argos to Corinth and started besieging the citadel. He sent a messenger to Aratus proposing that Acrocorinth should be garrisoned jointly by both the Spartans and the Achaeans, and that he would deliver a twelve talent pension. Aratus faced the hard decision of whether to give the city to Antigonus or to let it fall to Cleomenes. He chose to conclude an alliance with Antigonus and sent his son as a hostage to Macedon. Cleomenes invaded the territory of Sicyon and ravaged it.^[23]

[edit] Macedonian intervention

Meanwhile, Antigonus, who had brought with him a large force of 20,000 infantry and 1,400 cavalry, was marching through Euboea towards the Peloponnese.^[24] The hostile Aetolian League occupying Thessaly had threatened to oppose him if he went further south than Thermopylae, despite their neutrality to this point in the war.^[25] When Cleomenes heard of the Macedonian advance through Euboea, he abandoned his siege of Sicyon and constructed a trench and palisade running from Acrocorinth to the Isthmus. He chose this location to avoid facing the Macedonian phalanx head-on.^[26]

Despite numerous attempts to break through the defensive line and reach Lechaeum, Antigonus' force failed and suffered considerable losses.^[27] These defeats took such a toll on Antigonus that he considered advancing his attack of the palisade and moving his army to Sicyon. Aratus was visited one evening by some friends from Argos; they invited Antigonus to come to their city. The Argives were ready to revolt under the command of Aristoteles, as they were irritated that Cleomenes had not made any reforms in the city. Antigonus sent 1,500 men under the command of Aratus to sail to Epidaurus and, from there, march to Argos. At the same time the Achaean strategus for the year, Timoxenos, advanced with more men from Sicyon. When the Achaean reinforcements arrived, the entire city except for the citadel was in the hands of the Argives.^[28]

A map of the area around Corinth

When Cleomenes heard about the revolt at Argos, he sent his step-father with 2,000 men to try and save the situation. Megistonous was killed while assaulting the city, however, and the relief force retreated, leaving the Spartans in the citadel to continue resisting. Cleomenes abandoned his much stronger position at the Isthumus for fear of being encircled; he left Corinth to fall into the hands of Antigonus. Cleomenes advanced his troops upon Argos and forced his way into the city, rescuing the men stuck in the citadel. He retreated to Mantinea when he saw Antigonus' army on the plain outside the city.^[29]

After retreating into Arcadia, Cleomenes returned to Sparta, after receiving news of his wife's death. This left Antigonus free to advance through Arcadia and on the towns that Cleomenes had fortified, including Athenaeum—which he gave to Megalopolis. He continued to Aegium, where the Achaeans were holding their council. He gave a report on his operations and was made chief-in-command of all the allied forces.^[30]

Antigonus took the opportunity to revive the Hellenic League of Philip II of Macedon, under the name League of Leagues. Most of the Greek city states took part in the league. These included Macedon, Achaea, Boeotia, Thessaly, Phocis, Locris, Acarnania, Euboea and Epiros. Peter Green claims that for Antigonus the League was just a way to further Macedon's power.^[31][32]

In the early spring of 223 BC, Antigonus advanced upon Tegea. He was joined there by the Achaeans and together they laid siege to it. The Tegeans held out for a few days before being forced to surrender by the Macedonians' siege weapons. After the capture of Tegea, Antigonus advanced to Laconia, where he found Cleomenes' army waiting for him. When his scouts brought news that the garrison of Orchomenus was marching to meet Cleomenes, however, Antigonus broke camp and ordered a forced march; this caught the city by surprise and forced it to surrender. Antigonus proceeded to capture Mantinea, Heraea and Telphusa, which confined Cleomenes to Laconia. Antigonus then returned to Aegium, where he gave another report about his operations before dismissing the Macedonian troops to winter at home.^[30]

Knowing that Cleomenes got the money to pay for his mercenaries from Ptolemy, Antigonus, according to Peter Green, seems to have ceded some territory in Asia Minor to Ptolemy in return for Ptolemy withdrawing his financial support of Sparta. Whether this assumption is accurate or not, Ptolemy certainly withdrew his support, which left Cleomenes without money to pay for his mercenaries. Desperate for money, Cleomenes freed all helots able to pay five Attic minae; in this way he accumulated 500 talents of silver. He also armed 2,000 of the ex-helots in Macedonian style to counter the White Shields, the Macedonian crack troops, before planning a major initiative.^[33]

Cleomenes noted that Antigonus had dismissed his Macedonian troops and only traveled with his mercenaries. At the time Antigonus was in Aegium, a three-day march from Megalopolis. Most of the Achaeans of military age had been killed at Mount Lycaeum and Ladoceia. Cleomenes ordered his army to take five days' worth of rations and sent his troops toward Sellasia, to give the appearance of raiding the territory of Argos. From there he went to the territory of Megalopolis; during the night he ordered one of his friends, Panteus, to capture the weakest section of the walls, while Cleomenes and the rest of the army followed. Panteus managed to capture that section of the wall after killing the sentries. This allowed Cleomenes and the rest of the Spartan army to enter the city.^[33]

When dawn came, the Megalopolitans realised that the Spartans had entered the city; some of them fled Megalopolis, while others stood and fought against the invaders. Cleomenes' superior numbers forced the defenders to retreat, but their rearguard action allowed most of the population to escape—only 1,000 were captured. Cleomenes sent a message to Messene, where the exiles had gathered, offering to give back their city if they became his allies. The Megalopolitans refused; in retaliation the Spartans ransacked the city and burnt it to the ground. Nicholas Hammond estimated that Cleomenes managed to accumulate around 300 talents of loot from the city.^[34]

[edit] Battle of Sellasia

The capture of Megalopolis shook the Achaean League. Cleomenes set off with his army to raid the territory of Argos, knowing that Antigonus would not resist him due to a lack of men. Cleomenes also hoped that his raid would cause the Argives to lose confidence in Antigonus because of his failure to protect their territory.^[35]

In the summer of 222 BC, Antigonus summoned his troops from Macedon, who arrived together with other allied forces. According to Polybius, the Macedonian army consisted of: 10,000 Macedonian infantry, most of them armed as phalangites, 3,000 peltasts, 1,200 cavalry, 3,000 mercenaries, 8,600 Greek allies and 3,000 Achaean infantry, making a total of 29,200 men.^[36]

Cleomenes had fortified all the passes into Laconia with barricades and trenches before setting off with his army of 20,000 men to the pass at Sellasia. Overlooking the pass at Sellasia were two hills, Evas and Olympus. Cleomenes positioned his brother with the allied troops and the Perioeci on Evas; he stationed himself on Olympus with 6,000 Spartan hoplites and 5,000 mercenaries.^[36]

When Antigonus reached Sellasia with his army, he found it well guarded and decided against storming the strong position. Instead he pitched camp near Sellasia and waited for several days. During this time, he sent scouts to reconnoiter the areas and feign attacks on Cleomenes' position.^[37]

Unable to force a move from Cleomenes, Antigonus decided to risk a pitched battle. He positioned some of his Macedonian infantry and Illyrians facing the Evas hill in an articulated phalanx. The Epirots, the Acarnanians and 2,000 Achaean infantry stood behind them as reinforcements. The cavalry took a position opposite Cleomenes' cavalry, with 1,000 Achaean and Megalopolitan infantry in reserve. Together with the rest of his Macedonian infantry and mercenaries Antigonus took his position opposite that of Cleomenes.^[38]

A drawing of a Macedonian phalanx, similar to the one that fought at the Battle of Sellasia (the shields are smaller and lighter than with a traditional hoplite phalanx, the sarissa is twice as long as the traditional spears and fully enclosed helmets weren't as widespread as the drawing suggests)

The battle started when the Illyrian troops on the Macedonian right wing attacked the Spartan force on Evas. The Spartan light infantry and cavalry, noticing that the Achaean infantry was not protected at the rear, launched an assault on the back of the Macedonian right wing, and threatened to route it.^[39] However, at the critical moment, Philopoemon of Megalopolis (who later became one of the greatest heroes of the Achaean League, eventually conquering Sparta), tried to point out the danger to the senior cavalry commanders. When they did not take notice of him, Philopoemon gathered a few other cavalrymen and charged the Spartan cavalry. The Spartans attacking from the rear broke off their engagement with the enemy, which encouraged the Macedonians to charge at the Spartan positions. The Spartan left flank was eventually forced back and thrown from their position; they fled the field.^[40]

Meanwhile, the Macedonian phalanx on the left flank engaged the Spartan phalanx and mercenaries. At the initial assault the Macedonian phalanx gave a considerable amount of ground before its weight drove back the Spartan phalanx. The Spartans, overwhelmed by the larger Macedonian phalanx, were routed, but Cleomenes managed to escape with a small group of men. The battle was very costly for the Spartans; most of their army was routed. Of the 6,000 Spartans that fought, only 200 were still living at the end of the battle.^[41]

[edit] Aftermath

Following his defeat at Sellasia, Cleomenes briefly returned to Sparta and urged the citizens to accept Antigonus' terms. Under cover of darkness, he fled from Sparta with some friends and went to the city's port of Gythium, where he boarded a ship heading to Egypt.^[41]

Antigonus entered Sparta triumphantly, its first foreign conqueror. Nevertheless, he treated the population generously and humanely. He ordered that the reforms of Cleomenes be revoked, he also restored the ephors and he did not force Sparta to join his League. The Spartans, however, decided to join the league. His failure to restore the Spartan Kings causes historian Graham Shipley to consider his restoration of laws a sham.^[42] Within three days he left Sparta and headed back to Macedon, leaving a garrison in Acrocorinth and Orchomenos to deal with a barbarian invasion. With Cleomenes' defeat, Sparta's power collapsed and it fell into the hands of tyrants. ^[43]

When Cleomenes arrived at Alexandria he was greeted by Ptolemy, who welcomed him with smiles and promises. At first Ptolemy was guarded towards Cleomenes, but soon came to respect him and promised to send him back to Greece with an army and a fleet. He also promised to provide Cleomenes with an annual income of twenty-four talents.^[44] However, before he could fulfill his promise, Ptolemy died—and with him any hope for Cleomenes to return to Greece when the weak Ptolemy IV ascended the throne.^[45]

Ptolemy IV began treating Cleomenes with neglect and soon his chief minister, Sosibius, had Cleomenes put under house arrest after he was falsely accused of plotting against the King.^[46] In 219 BC, Cleomenes and his friends escaped from house arrest and ran through the streets of Alexandria, trying to encourage an uprising against Ptolemy. When this failed, Cleomenes and all of his friends committed suicide.^[47]

[edit] Notes

^ a: The position of the ephors was first introduced in Sparta according to Plutarch in 700 BC by King Theopompus. The ephors were five men who were elected annually by the Spartan assembly and once they held the post once they could not do so again.^[48] The ephors looked after the day to day running of the state and where the arbiters of war and peace. The position was created to check and restrain the power of the King.^[49]

In the Achaean League, the position of strategus was the highest. A strategus was elected annually by the Achaean ekklesia or assembly and he was the lead general of the League for the year as well as the chief magistrate. Someone could not hold the position for more than one year.^[50]

[edit] Citations

[edit] References

[edit] Primary sources

• Pausanias, translated by W.H.S. Jones, (1918). Description of Greece. London: Cambridge.
• Plutarch, translated by Richard Talbert, (1988). Life of Agis. New York: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044463-7.
• Plutarch, translated by Richard Talbert, (1988). Life of Cleomenes. New York: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044463-7.
• Plutarch, translated by Richard Talbert, (1988). Plutarch on Sparta. New York: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044463-7.
• Polybius, translated by Frank W. Walbank, (1979). The Rise of the Roman Empire. New York: Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044362-2.
• Plutarch. "Life of Aratus", Attalus. Retrieved on 8-9-2007. 

[edit] Secondary sources

• Michael Avi Yonah and Israel Shatzman, (1976). Illustrated Encyclopaedia of the Classical World. Jerusalem: Jerusalem Publishing House. ISBN 562-00037-2.
• N. G. L. Hammond, (1989). The Macedonian State: Origins, Institutions and History. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-814883-6.
• John Grainger, (1999). The League of Aitolians. Leiden: Koninklijke. ISBN 0-169-8958.
• Peter Green, (1990). Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age. Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-500-01485-X.
• Christian Habicht, (1997). Athens from Alexander to Antony. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-05111-4.
• John Hackett, (1989). Warfare in the Classical World. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. ISBN 0-283-99591-2.
• John Lemprière, (1989). Classical Dictionary. London: Bracken Books. ISBN 1-88891-228-8.
• William Smith, (1873). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. London: John Murray.
• Niebuhr, Barthold Georg. "A History of Rome. Vol II", Million Book Project. Retrieved on 5-9-2007. 
• Graham Shipley, (2000). The Greek World After Alexander: 323-30 BC. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-04618-1.