Christian democracy
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Christian Democracy is a political ideology and movement that began in large measure as a response to the anti-Christian and anti-cultural nature of the French Revolution and Marxism on the one hand, and the anti-worker and anti-social nature of Social Darwinism and laissez-faire capitalism on the other. It is distinct from Christianity as a religion, and most Christian Democratic parties today do not have a confessional criterion for membership or service.
Broadly speaking, Christian Democracy as an ideology is a form of communitarianism. It is a political philosophy focusing on the health of the community in all areas of community existence. This community orientation is often considered conservative (or right-leaning) in regard to moral and cultural issues and progressive (or left-leaning) in regard to social justice, labor and socio-economic issues. More specifically, Christian Democratic parties generally claim a strong social conscience, in the sense of great respect for the dignity of the human person from conception to natural death (that is, a pro-life stance), emphasizing the alleviation of poverty, and maintenance of a basic level of societal protection (and a limited welfare state if necessary) keeping the weak from abandonment and destitution, and the incentivising of (and if necessary the restraint of) market forces for the common good (see social market economy). It may also be seen as liberal as it upholds human rights and individual initiative (read personal responsibility). It may be seen as federalistic and traditional in that it emphasizes sphere sovereignty and subsidiarity, and maintaining local and regional cultural distinctives, as well as upholding universal traditions (for example, traditional marriage). It may be seen as green in that it advocates positive stewardship of the creation, especially through using renewable energy, and avoiding activities that destroy the environment. Christian Democrats today hold a variety of views, although they agree in general about the goals of public policy. Some parties and politicians have taken opposing positions on controversial issues such as abortion and divorce.
Christian Democracy is a significant force in the political mainstream of Europe and Latin America, but is less common on other continents. Christian Democratic parties in Latin America are generally more inclined to support left-leaning economic views, while their European counterparts tend to be closer to the political center, or center-right, on economic issues.
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[edit] Political viewpoints
As with every category of political thought, in practice, the policies and priorities of Christian Democratic parties can vary considerably over time and between countries.
Christian Democrats are usually socially conservative, and, as such, many Christian Democrats are opposed to abortion and same-sex marriage, although some Christian Democratic parties have accepted the legalization of both, within certain limits. Christian Democratic parties are often likely to assert the Christian heritage of their country, and to explicitly affirm Christian ethics, rather than adopting a more liberal and secular stance that all religions are to be considered equivalent.
Christian Democracy sees the economy as being at the service of humanity; however, most Christian Democratic parties do not call capitalism itself into question. The duty of the state to care for its citizens (or, for some Christian Democrats, the duty of the state to facilitate the most conducive public conditions for a society to care for its members within various non-political communities) is of real importance for Christian Democrats. Some Christian Democrats oppose Christian socialism, while others may at times seem to hold political opinions close to it. In recent decades, some major Christian Democratic parties in Europe have shifted more towards a right-leaning policy of economic liberalism, based on reducing the role of the state in the economy and increasing the role of non-governmental communities in identifying and supplying various societal needs.
Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood describe the basis of Christian Democracy by writing "In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles."[1] They describe the basis of Christian Democracy in terms of comparisons to and contrasts with liberalism, socialism and conservatism, a useful approach to understanding Christian Democracy.
In such terms of comparisons and contrasts, a "typical" Christian Democratic viewpoint might be described as follows:
- In common with liberalism, an emphasis on human rights and individual initiative.
- In contrast to liberalism, a rejection of laicity, and an emphasis on the fact that the individual is part of a community and has duties towards it.
- In common with conservatism, conservative moral values (that is, on issues such as marriage, divorce, abortion etc.), a view of the evolutionary development of society, an emphasis on law and order, and a rejection of communism.
- In contrast to conservatism, open to change (for example, in the structure of society) and not necessarily supportive of the social status quo.
- In common with socialism, a strong emphasis on social solidarity (that is, the welfare state, prioritizing alleviation of poverty, higher taxes on the wealthy, etc.) and a willingness to restrain market forces.
- In contrast to socialism, supports capitalism (with restrictions) and a market economy and does not adhere to the class struggle doctrine.
[edit] History of Christian Democracy
Christian Democracy as a political movement was born at the end of the 19th century, largely as a result of the papal encyclical Rerum Novarum of Pope Leo XIII, in which the Vatican recognized workers' misery and agreed that something should be done about it, in reaction to the rise of the socialist and trade union movements. The position of the Roman Catholic Church on this matter was further clarified in a subsequent encyclical, Quadragesimo Anno, by Pope Pius XI in 1931. Christian Democracy has evolved considerably since then, and it is no longer a particularly Catholic ideology. In Germany, for example, the Christian Democratic Party emerged as a grouping dominated by Rhenish and Westphalian Catholics, but also encompassed the more conservative elements of the protestant population. Following World War II, Christian Democracy was seen as a neutral and unifying voice of compassionate conservatism, and distinguished itself from the far right. It gave a voice to 'conservatives of the heart', particularly in Germany, who had detested Adolf Hitler's regime yet did not agree with the right on many issues.
In Protestant countries, Christian Democratic parties were founded by more conservative Protestants in reaction to the political power of liberal tendencies within the Protestant churches. In the Netherlands, for instance, the Anti Revolutionary Party was founded in 1879 by conservative Protestants. It institutionalized early 19th century opposition against the ideas from the French Revolution on popular sovereignty. It held the position that government derived its authority from God and not from the people. This Burkean position is sometimes also called Christian Historian. It was a response to the liberal ideas that predominated in political life. The Swedish Christian Democratic Party, rooted in the Pentecostal religious tradition, has a similar history.
While Christian Democracy is of Roman Catholic origin, it has been adopted by many Protestant and Orthodox Christians as well. Some Christian Democratic parties, particularly in Europe, no longer emphasize religion and have become much more secular in recent years. Also within Europe, two essentially Islamic parties, the Democratic League of Kosovo and the Turkey's ruling Justice and Development Party (usually known by the Turkish acronym AKP, for Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi) have moved towards the tradition. The Democratic League of Kosovo is now a full member of the Centrist Democrat International.
Christian Democracy can trace its philosophical roots back to Thomas Aquinas and his thoughts about Aristotelian ontology and the Christian tradition. According to him, human rights are defined as the things that humans need to function properly. For example, food is a human right because without food humans cannot function properly. Modern authors important to the formation of Christian Democratic ideology include Emmanuel Mounier, Étienne Gilson, and Jacques Maritain.
[edit] Christian Democracy around the world
The international organization of Christian Democratic parties, the Christian Democrat International, is the second largest international political organization in the world (second only to the Socialist International). European Christian Democratic parties have their own regional organization called the European People's Party, which forms the largest group in the European Parliament. However, not all Christian Democratic parties in Europe are members of it. Some, such as the Union for French Democracy, have joined the centrist group called the European Democratic Party, which takes a yet stronger Europhile stance. Similarly, Italy's Margherita ("Daisy") party - a member of Prime Minister Romano Prodi's center-left coalition l'Unione - is a founding constituent of the EDP, while the Alleanza Popolare-UDEUR (also member's of Prodi's l'Unione) caucus with the EPP-ED.
[edit] Christian Democracy in Europe
Christian Democracy has been especially important in Italy, inspired by Luigi Sturzo (see Democrazia Cristiana), Norway (see Christian Democratic Party of Norway), and Germany (see Christian Democratic Union and Christian Social Union). Major Christian Democratic influence can also be seen in the politics of Austria (ÖVP), Belgium (Christene Volkspartij, CD&V and CDH), Finland, France, Ireland (Fine Gael), Luxembourg, Malta, The Netherlands (Christian Democratic Appeal), Poland (Polish Peasant Party, part of Civic Platform and part of Law and Justice), Ukraine (Christian Democratic Union) Slovenia, Spain (People's Party), and Sweden (Christian Democrats). Christian Democracy is not very strong in the United Kingdom where the Conservative Party dominates conservative politics and they do not advocate Christian Democracy.
The Nationalist Party in Malta is a Christian Democratic Party and has won seven out of ten general elections since Independence in 1964. Currently governing, it has won its third consecutive general election in 2008. It advocates staunch Christian values and Malta is therefore still a Catholic country, where abortion and divorce are illegal in any situation.
[edit] Christian Democracy in Latin America
Christian Democracy has been especially important in Chile (see Christian Democrat Party of Chile), in a government coalition since 1990 with Social Democrats, among others, and most recently in Mexico with the National Action Party of Vicente Fox.
[edit] Christian Democracy in Asia
[edit] The Philippines
In the Philippines, the influence of Christian Democracy as well as the Roman Catholic and Protestant clergy is very evident, especially in the People Power uprisings it has produced. The largely Roman Catholic country has elected two Christian Democratic presidents (Fidel V. Ramos, a Protestant, and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, a devout Catholic, both from the ruling Lakas-CMD party). Filipino Christian Democrats have always focused on economic growth and development, stronger ties with the United States, creation of jobs, and strong cooperation between the executive and legislative branches of government. Christian Democrats in the country have been known for their advocacy of a shift from the present presidential system to a parliamentary form of government through constitutional amendments and through establishing peace talks with Muslim separatists and communist rebels.
What makes Filipino Christian Democracy distinct from others is its inclusion of Muslim leaders in its political alliance (see Lakas-Christian-Muslim Democrats Party). This is an example of Christian Democracy being "ecumenical" in its political agenda.
[edit] Christian Democracy in Australia
In Victoria, the Catholic Australian Labor Party (ALP) parliamentarians who aligned themselves with B. A. Santamaria were expelled from the party (against that party's rules). They formed a new party, soon to be known as the Democratic Labor Party (DLP). Later in 1957, a similar split occurred in Queensland, with the resulting group subsequently joining the DLP. The party also had sitting members from Tasmania and NSW at various times, though it was much stronger in the former mentioned states.
The party was in agreement with the ruling conservative Liberal and Country parties on many issues, which resulted in their preferencing of these parties over the ALP. However, it was more morally conservative, militantly anti-communist and socially compassionate than the Liberals. The DLP was defeated by the federal election of 1974 that saw its primary vote cut by nearly two thirds, and the entry of an ALP government. The DLP never regained its previous support in subsequent elections and formally disbanded in 1978, but a small group within the party refused to accept this decision and created a small, reformed successor party.
Though his party was effectively gone, Santamaria and his National Civic Council took a strong diametrically opposed stance to dominant neoliberal/New Right tendencies within both the ALP and Liberal parties throughout the eighties and early nineties.
A new Christian party that found its first strength in 1981 was the Christian Democratic Party (initially known as the "Call to Australia" party). It gained 9.1% of the vote in the New South Wales (NSW) state election of 1981, but its vote rapidly declined thereafter. This Protestant party had some very similar social policies to the DLP. Its support base has generally been restricted to NSW and Western Australia, where it usually gains between 2-4% of votes, with its support being minuscule in other states. It has had two members of the NSW state parliament for most of its life.
Another Australian Christian Democratic party of note is the Family First Party. It has had one or two members of the SA parliament since 2002, and in 2004, also managed to elect a Victorian senator. Its electoral support is fairly small in most states, with the exceptions being South Australia (4-6%), and Victoria (around 4%). Family First generally receives lower support in national elections than in state elections.
In 2006, the new DLP experienced a small resurgence. The successor party struggled through decades of Victorian elections before finally gaining a parliamentary seat when the Victorian upper house was redesigned. Nevertheless, its electoral support is still very small in Victoria (around 2%), and lower still in the rest of the country. Its policies are much the same as the old party, but without the focus on Communism.
[edit] Notable Christian Democrats
- Konrad Adenauer, first chancellor of West Germany after World War II, and architect of the social market economy.
- Giulio Andreotti, long-time Prime Minister of Italy.
- Patricio Aylwin, Chilean politician who served as president when Chile returned to democracy after the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.
- José María Aznar, former Spanish prime-minister.
- Rafael Caldera, two time Venezuelan president and author.
- Felipe Calderon, president of Mexico.
- José Napoleón Duarte, first democratically-elected president of El Salvador.
- Eddie Fenech Adami, former leader of the Nationalist Party in Malta (Partit Nazzjonalista); former Prime Minister of Malta; current President of the Republic of Malta.
- Vicente Fox, former president of Mexico; current Co-President of Christian Democrat International.
- Eduardo Frei Montalva, Chilean politician and former president.
- Alcide De Gasperi, Italian prime minister and pro-European leader.
- Helmut Kohl, chancellor of West Germany and later the unified Germany.
- Abraham Kuyper, founder of the Dutch Anti Revolutionary Party (the first Christian Democratic party), as well as the Protestant Neo-Calvinist movement, and prime minister of the Netherlands.
- Giorgio La Pira, Italian politician, from the left-wing of DC.
- Ruud Lubbers, prime minister of the Netherlands and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
- Jacques Maritain
- Kjell Magne Bondevik, former prime minister of Norway.
- Angela Merkel, first female chancellor of Germany (since 2005).
- Aldo Moro, Prime Minister of Italy killed by "Brigate Rosse".
- Paulo Portas, former Portuguese Defense minister.
- Fidel V. Ramos, first Protestant president of the Catholic-dominated Philippines and founder and chair emeritus of the political party, Lakas-Christian Muslim Democrats.
- B. A. Santamaria, Australian Catholic anticommunist and founder of the Democratic Labor Party.
- Robert Schuman, French politician who has served both as head of government and foreign minister. He was one of the founders of the European Union.
- Wolfgang Schüssel, former Austrian chancellor.
- Franz Josef Strauß, minister-president of Bavaria (Germany).
[edit] Similar but unaffiliated parties and politicians
Though they do not identify with Christian Democracy for obvious religious reasons, Israel's Shas (Sephardic Orthodox party) and United Torah Judaism (Ashkenazi Orthodox party) could be classified as Christian Democratic parties, due to their combination of conservative social and religious policies with an emphasis on increased social spending. They also tend to be centrist and relatively flexible in terms of their positions on national security and the peace process.
Henry Olsen of the American Enterprise Institute has named American politicians Gov. Mike Huckabee, Sen. Rick Santorum, and political advisor Michael Gerson, all members of the Republican Party, as exemplars of the Christian Democratic philosophy in the United States.[2] Gerson, in turn, has described himself as having once been a "Bob Casey Democrat", after the anti-abortion, pro-labor-union former Pennsylvania Governor.
[edit] In New Zealand
Until 1993, New Zealand's first-past-the-post electoral system, like that of the United States, imposed strong centralising and bipartisan pressures on its political configurations, which disadvantages minor parties. For this reason, Catholics have remained enmeshed within the New Zealand Labour Party. Like in Australia, conservative Catholics opposed Labour and National New Right policies during the eighties and nineties. However, the New Zealand Labour Party never split as the Australian Labor Party did in the fifties.
However, by the eighties, New Zealand Catholic voting patterns were diversifying. Class seemed to trump confessional adherence, as older Catholic sectarians died off, and became less able to enforce preferred economic and social policies through unified bloc pressure. Occupational and class divisions may have led to left/right bifurcation. Rural Catholics might therefore vote National due to occupational preferences as farmers, while urban working-class Catholics might have voted Labour, Alliance or Green, due to each party's commitment to stronger social policy expenditure, or commitment to peace movement and anti-war stances. In 1993 New Zealand introduced the Mixed Member Proportional system of proportional representation, which created greater openings for small parties, and since 1996 all governments have involved coalitions.
As a result, while conservative Catholic Future New Zealand List MP Gordon Copeland is currently aligned with Helen Clark's New Zealand Labour Party-led government over confidence and supply, he is still a diehard social conservative. Within the New Zealand National Party, Bill English has often voiced anxieties about the New Right direction of his party since the late nineties, consistent with what one would expect from a European Christian Democrat.
By contrast, Jim Anderton broke away from the Labour Party and was party leader of the New Labour Party and Alliance until left/pragmatist strains broke it apart in 2001-2. Since then, his Progressive Party has adopted social conservative stances against prostitution in New Zealand, euthanasia, and decriminalisation of marijuana, while strongly supporting increased expenditure on public health, social welfare and public education; all these policies are consistent with a Christian Democrat framework.
[edit] See also
- Christian Democratic parties — a list of Christian Democratic parties all over the world
[edit] International Christian Democratic Organizations
- Centrist Democratic International (CDI) — formerly Christian Democratic International
- Christian Democratic Organization of America (ODCA) — a CDI regional organization for the Americas
- European People's Party (EPP) — a CDI regional organization, and the largest regional party in the European Parliament
- European Christian Political Movement (ECPM) — a European regional party (non-CDI)
- European Democratic Party (EDP) — a European regional party (non-CDI)
[edit] Related Concepts
- Catholic social teaching
- Communitarianism
- Compassionate conservatism
- Christian left
- Christian right
- Neo-Calvinism
- Radical centrism
- Social conservatism
- Social market economy
- Third Way politics
[edit] References
- ^ Roberts and Hogwood, European Politics Today, Manchester University Press, 1997
- ^ "The GOP's Time for Choosing, Henry Olsen, The Wall Street Journal, January 6, 2008
[edit] External links
- New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia article on Christian Democracy
- Christian Democracy in Western Europe: 1820-1953 by Michael Fogarty
- Conservativism and Christian Democracy, an essay by UK Conservative MP David Willetts
- An effort to start a Christian Democratic party in the United States (CDU est. 2006)
- Another effort to start a Christian Democratic party in the U.S.
| See: Christian politics (index) for articles related to this subject. |
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