Racial tension in Omaha, Nebraska

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Further information: Timeline of Racial Tension in Omaha, Nebraska

Further information: Civil Rights Movement in Omaha, Nebraska

Racial Tension in Omaha, Nebraska was linked most to the early 20th century, years in which the city had rapid social change, with a volatile mixture of new immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and African American migrants from the Deep South. All were attracted by new industrial jobs and most were from rural areas. There was competition between white people from the United States, African Americans from the South, and a variety of immigrants from around the world for jobs and housing, and strains in adjusting to industrial demands.

Throughout the history of Omaha there has been a variety of ways racial tension has erupted, frequently in the form of mob violence. Starting in the 1920s mechanisms enforcing institutional racism became popular, including redlining and restrictive covenants. The relationship of white people and African Americans in Omaha has been historically tense; however, there were also difficulties in the acceptance of the numerous late 19th-early 20th century immigrant groups, such as Greeks, Germans, Jews, and Italians.

Contents 1 19th century 2 20th century 2.1 Civil Rights Movement-era 2.2 Late 20th century 3 21st century 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

[edit] 19th century

The Nebraska Territory was created in 1854 with the condition that the area stay slave-free. However, from 1855 on, there was debate in the Territorial Legislature about whether slavery should specifically be prohibited. As there were few slaves in the state, some legislators did not think the bill was needed.^[1] In 1859, the Daily Nebraskian newspaper reported its favoring of slavery, writing,

The bill introduced in [Omaha City] Council, for the abolition of slavery in this Territory, was called up yesterday, and its further consideration postponed for two weeks. A strong effort will be made among the Republicans to secure its passage; we think, however, it will fail. The farce certainly cannot be enacted if the Democrats do their duty.^[2]

During that period, some local newspapers openly editorialized against the presence of blacks in Omaha, for the Confederacy and against the election and election of Abraham Lincoln.^[3] The 1860 census showed that of the 81 Negroes in Nebraska, only 10 were slaves.^[4]

Because a clause in the original proposed Nebraska State Constitution limited voting rights in the state to "free white males", as had been common in many states, Nebraska was delayed about a year from entering the Union. In 1865, the Nebraska Territorial Legislature changed the proposed State Constitution to provide expanded suffrage. The territory gained statehood soon after.

St. John's African Methodist Episcopal Church was organized in 1867 as the first church for African Americans in Nebraska.^[5] The first recorded birth of an African American was recorded in Omaha in 1872, when William Leper was born.^[6] In 1891 a mob lynched George Smith, an African American man, for allegedly raping a "white" woman. There was no trial of anyone in the mob.^[7]

During this period, several segregated "black schools" were established in Omaha. In the 20th century that list would include Kennedy School, Lake School, Lothrop School and Long School.^[8]

Further information: History of slavery in Nebraska

[edit] 20th century

The first half the 1900s saw several heinous acts perpetrated against people who were not identified as "White people" in Omaha, including Greeks and Germans. There were riots, the destruction of an entire neighborhood, the burning of the county courthouse, and the second recorded lynching of an African American in Omaha's history.

More than 800 students in South Omaha protested the presence of Japanese students at their school in April 1905. Refusing to attend and locking adults out of their school buildings, these students effectively taking over the buildings. The Japanese students were children of strikebreakers brought in by the Omaha Stockyards the previous year.^[9]

On July 4, 1910 African American boxer Jack Johnson won a major upset at a match in Reno, Nevada. Upon hearing the news mobs of whites roamed around Omaha rioting and looting African Americans throughout the city, as they did in cities across the U.S.. The mobs wounded several black men in the city and killed one. ^[10]

Greek Town was a successful Greek immigrant community in South Omaha. However, the Greeks were largely frowned upon throughout Omaha. Originally brought to the city as strikebreakers, the men of the community had been jobless for an extensive period after they were laid off following the strikes. They was a common misconception that they were lazy or slovenly because they apparently sat in their neighborhood drinking coffee and talking loudly all day. In that context, in September 1909 a male resident of the community was arrested by an Irish South Omaha policeman for having sex with a "white" woman. The man took the officer's gun and shot him, and when he was captured a short while later a mob of 1,000 arrived at the door of the jail. However, by then the South Omaha policemen had transferred him to the Omaha city jail. Frustrated, the mob turned to the Greek neighborhood and commenced to destroy it, threatening all of its residents with death if they didn't leave town. Within a day the entire six-by-six block area was abandoned, its former residents scattered into cities across the Midwest. Meanwhile, the entire neighborhood was destroyed by the mob. The accused man was eventually brought to trial; however, after intervention from the Greek ambassador to the U.S., the man was released and charges dropped.

In the immediate years after World War I anti-German sentiment ran high across the country, contributing to passage of a 1919 Nebraska state law that enforced teaching in English. By law, "No person, individually or as a teacher, shall, in any private, denominational, parochial or public school, teach any subject to any person in any language than the English language."^[11] Robert Meyer was found to violate this law because he taught German. He was taken to court by the State of Nebraska, and when found guilty he appealed. Although his appeal to the Nebraska Supreme Court failed, the U.S. Supreme Court in Meyer v. Nebraska determined that Meyer had the right to teach the German language as a subject, and to teach it in German. During the course of the year open discrimination against Germans throughout Omaha was taking hold. Many German-language newspapers were forced to change to English, or to close.^[12]

In September 1919 an African American laborer named Willy Brown was lynched in Omaha. He had been accused of raping a white woman, and a mob of 5,000 appeared at the Douglas County Courthouse within hours to demand "justice." Within hours the mob grew to 10,000 people, and when Edward P. Smith, the mayor, attempted to intervene he was lynched by the mob; only a last minute rescue saved his life. They 10,000 soon overtook the police force and nearly destroyed the courthouse while trying to get Brown. They succeeded, shooting and mutilating him before lynching the body, and afterwards burning the corpse. When the mob was finished with Brown's corpse, they turned their hatred towards other African Americans, and began to march en masse towards a large African American enclave. However, the U.S. Army was called in from Fort Omaha to intervene, and an unseasonal rainstorm literally stopped the march of the mob. After martial law was declared for several days the city returned to a contented state; no trial or convictions ever occurred related to the event.

After World War I white veterans trying to return to their civilian jobs found African American and Eastern European immigrants in their former positions, which in turn lead to several violent strikes in the South Omaha meat packing industry. During this period Earl Little was a Baptist minister in North Omaha. After his son, Malcolm, was born in Omaha in 1921, the family moved from Omaha because of threats by the Ku Klux Klan in 1926. Malcolm Little later changed his last name to X, becoming Malcolm X, leader of the Black Muslims.^[13]

In the 1920s racial segregation became normalized in Omaha as redlining and restrictive covenants kept African Americans segregated in North Omaha, loosely defined by where the soldiers were stationed after the attempted mob attack on the community.^[14] That incident was said to discredit the city's reformist government, in addition to radicalizing Omaha's African American population, including Earl Little, Harry Haywood and George Wells Parker.^[15] After this period African Americans in Omaha were largely concentrated on the city's north side, with a small community in South Omaha.

[edit] Civil Rights Movement-era

Main article: Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska

In 1947 a youth-led civil rights group called the DePorres Club was forced off the Creighton University campus, where they started, eventually meeting at the offices of the Omaha Star.^[16]

Omaha jazz legend Preston Love reported that in the 1950s he saw signs throughout Omaha's restaurants and bars that said, "We Don't Serve Any Colored Race." - but that he was always welcome as a musician.^[17] It was this period that author Lois Mark Stalvey wrote about in her first book, The Education of a WASP. She recounted her activist efforts to desegregate a West Omaha neighborhood for an African American surgeon and his family who wanted to live in the area.^[18]

On July 4, 1966, after a day of blistering 103 degree weather, a crowd of African Americans gathered at the intersection of North 24th and Lake Streets in the evening. They responded violently when police requested their dispersal. The crowd demolished police cars and roamed the North 24th Street business corridor for hours, throwing firebombs and demolishing storefronts. Millions of dollars of damage was caused to businesses in the Near North Side community.^[19] The riot lasted three days.^[20] The National Guard was called in to disperse the rioters.^[21] Less than a month later, on August 1, 1966, riots again erupted after a 19-year-old was shot by a white, off-duty policeman during a burglary. The Omaha World-Herald and local television stations were accused of blaming African Americans for the conditions they faced in their deteriorating neighborhoods. Three buildings were firebombed, and 180 riot police were required to quell the crowds.^[22]

That same year, 1966, A Time for Burning, a documentary featuring North Omaha, was filmed. Later it was nominated for an Oscar for best documentary.

A crowd of high school and university students were gathered at the Omaha Civic Auditorium in March 1968 to protest the presidential campaign of George Wallace, the segregationist governor of Alabama. After counter-protesters began acting violently toward the youth activists, police brutality led to the injury of dozens of protesters. An African-American youth was shot and killed by a police officer during the melee, and fleeing students caused thousands of dollars of damage to businesses and cars.^[23]The following day a local barber named Ernie Chambers helped calm a disturbance and prevent a riot by students at Horace Mann Junior High School. Chambers was already recognized as a community leader. After finishing his law degree, Chambers was elected to the Nebraska State Legislature, and served a total of 38 years, longer than any of his predecessors.^[24] Robert Kennedy visited Omaha later that year in his quest to become president, speaking in support of Omaha's civil rights activists.

An African-American teenager named Vivian Strong was shot and killed by police officers in an incident at the Logan Fontenelle Housing Projects in June 1969. Young African Americans in the area rioted in response to the teenager's death, with looting along the North 24th Street business corridor. During this initial surge eight businesses were destroyed by firebombing or looting.^[25] Events went on for several more days.^[26][27] This is the last noted riot in Omaha.

In 1970 an African American man named Duane Peak was arrested, and quickly implicated six others in a bombing at a vacant house in North Omaha that killed a police officer. On August 31, local Black Panther Party leaders David Rice and Ed Poindexter were arrested, despite not being originally implicated. In 1971 both men were convicted of murder in the controversial Rice/Poindexter Case, and in 1974 a retrial of Rice and Poindexter was denied by the Nebraska State Supreme Court.

[edit] Late 20th century

The 1970s construction of the North Freeway bisected North Omaha, effectively cutting the African American community in half. In 1976, Omaha Public Schools began court-ordered integrated busing.^[28]

In 1981 arsonists blazed an East Omaha duplex after an African American family signed a rental agreement there. The arson is unsolved.^[29]

In 1993 the Nebraska Parole Board voted for the first time to unanimously commute the sentences of Rice and Poindexter's sentences to time served. The Nebraska Board of Pardons refused to schedule a hearing in the matter. This same sequence of events has occurred no fewer than three times since then, with the same outcome each time.

In 1995 an African American gang member murdered an Omaha police officer named Jimmy Wilson, Jr. The city responded by equipping every police car with a camera and giving North Omaha officers body armor. Later that year arsonists tipped over and blazed an African American woman's car in East Omaha at the same location of the 1981 arson. Both cases are unsolved.^[30] In 1996 the Omaha Public Schools ended court-ordered busing.^[31] That same year the Omaha World-Herald reported that, "One resident of Rose Garden Estates near 172nd and Pacific Streets said privately, for instance, that he finds the prospect of being incorporated into the city 'increasingly scary.' 'I left Benson because I didn't like the changes,' he said. 'Too much crime, too much racial tension, too much school busing. I went to the suburbs to get away from that, and now I'm being forced back in.' The man, an insurance company employee, denied that his problems were based on race, but he asked that this part of the interview be anonymous."^[32]

In 1997, an African American Gulf War veteran named Marvin Ammons was shot and killed by an Omaha police officer. A grand jury finds the officer guilty of manslaughter, only to later have the judgement thrown out for jury misconduct. A second grand jury acquitted the offer of wrongdoing and admonished the Omaha police department for mishandling the case.

In 2000, George Bibbins, an African American, led Omaha police on a high speed car chase. At the end of the chase, he was shot and killed by officers. A grand jury later acquitted the accused officers of any wrongdoing.

Also in 2000, the Nebraska State Legislature enacted term limits. Some believed this action was aimed at long-time African American State Senator Ernie Chambers, who had then served 27 years.^[33] In 2005 Chambers became the longest-serving State Senator in Nebraska history, with more than 32 years of service. Because of the law, he will not be allowed to run for office again when his term expires in 2008.

Desegregation busing and racial integration in public schools have been contentious issues in Omaha. Problems with public schools have been a factor in whites' moving to the suburbs.^[34]

From 1976 to 1999, Omaha had a integrated busing plan as an effort to integrate the schools.^[35] Busing was an early goal of civil rights leaders in Omaha, including 4CL, who lauded integrated busing as a particularly important step in improving race relations.^[36] When threatened to end in the 1990s, Concerned and Caring Educators, a 100-member group of black education administrators and supervisors advocated against the cessation of forced busing and praised the system as improving race relations and the education of Omaha's students.^[37] Omaha Public Schools ended integrated busing in 1999. As in many other cities, concerns about schools are high. There have been delays in efforts to unite the Omaha public school district with smaller, local districts in the western half of the city.^[38]

[edit] 21st century

Senator Ernie Chambers proposed a controversial school separation plan for Omaha in the Nebraska State Legislature in response to the West Omaha districts' concerns. He lobbied to create three districts in the city, with each drawn along geographic boundaries that loosely correlated to the racial segregation of the city: African Americans in North Omaha, Hispanic/Latinos in South Omaha, and Caucasians in West Omaha.^[39] The State Legislature signed this plan into law in April, 2006, with the plan going into effect in 2008.

Within a month of signing the law, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People brought a lawsuit, arguing that due to Omaha's racially segregated residential patterns, subdivided school districts will also be racially segregated, contrary to United States law.^[40] The case has also drawn national attention, as many sources have come to regard the plan as "state-sponsored segregation".^[41]

In February, 2007, unknown assailants robbed, firebombed, and spray painted a racist epithet on the side of an East Omaha grocery store owned by an Ethiopian immigrant. That crime is unsolved.^[42]

In October the Omaha World-Herald noted recent census statistics showed that Omaha, the 43rd largest city in the United States, has the fifth highest poverty rate for African Americans among the 100 largest cities. More than one in three live below the poverty line. The city unveiled ty plans for public-private development in North Omaha that are intended to revive the area.^[43]

A 2007 neo-Nazi rally in Omaha drew 65 participants to a protest outside the city's Mexican consulate. Thousands were involved in counter-protests, as well as events celebrating the diversity of the city.^[44]

[edit] See also

• History of North Omaha, Nebraska
• Timeline of North Omaha, Nebraska history
• History of Omaha, Nebraska
• History of slavery in Nebraska

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Fast Facts about Omaha's African American community
• Discover North Omaha website
• Discover Black Omaha website

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