Qianlong Emperor
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| Qianlong Emperor 乾隆帝 |
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| Qing Gaozong 清高宗 |
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| Reign | 18 October 1735 – 8 February 1796 |
| Predecessor | Yongzheng Emperor |
| Successor | Jiaqing Emperor |
| Spouse | Empress Xiao Xian Chun The Step Empress, Ulanara Empress Xiao Yi Chun |
| Issue | |
| Yonghuang, Prince Ding Yonglian Princess He Jing Yongzhang, Prince Xun Yongqi, Prince Rong Princess He Jia Yongzhong, Prince Zhe Yongxuan, Prince Yi Yongxin, Prince Cheng Yongji, Beile Princess He Jing Yong Yan, Jiaqing Emperor Yonglin, Prince Qing |
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| Full name | |
| Chinese: Aixin-Jueluo Hongli 愛新覺羅弘曆 Manchu: Aisin-Gioro Hung Li |
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| Titles | |
| The Grand Emperor The Emperor The Prince Bao |
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| Era name | |
| 1736 - 1796 - Qiánlóng 乾隆 | |
| Posthumous name | Emperor Fatian Longyun Zhicheng Xianjue Tiyuan Liji Fuwen Fenwu Qinming Xiaoci Shensheng Chun 法天隆運至誠先覺體元立極敷文奮武欽明孝慈神聖純皇帝 |
| Temple name | Qing Gaozong 清高宗 |
| Royal house | House of Aisin-Gioro(爱新觉罗) |
| Father | Yongzheng Emperor |
| Mother | Empress Xiao Sheng Xian |
| Born | September 25, 1711 |
| Died | February 7, 1799 (aged 87) |
| Burial | Eastern Qing Tombs, Zunhua |
Emperor Qianlong (乾隆 Qiánlōng) (Wade-Giles Ch'ien-Lung) (born Hongli (弘历), September 25, 1711 – February 7, 1799) was the fifth emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China[1]. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from October 18, 1735 to February 9, 1796, at which point he abdicated in favor of his son, the Jiaqing Emperor - a filial act in order not to reign longer than his grandfather, the illustrious Kangxi Emperor. Despite his retirement, however, he retained ultimate power until his death in 1799. Although his early years saw the continuity of an era of prosperity in China, he was of unrelentingly conservative and sinocentric attitude. As a result, the Qing Dynasty's comparative decline began later in his reign.
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[edit] Early years
There are myths and legends that say Hongli was actually a Han and not of Manchu descent, whilst there were some that say Hongli was only half Manchu and half Han Chinese descent. Nevertheless, looking at historical records, Hongli was adored both by his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor and his father, the Yongzheng Emperor. Some historians argue that the main reason why Kangxi Emperor appointed Yongzheng as his successor was because Qianlong was his favourite grandson. He felt that Hongli's mannerisms were very close to his own. As a teenager he was very capable in martial arts, and possessed a high literary ability.
After his father's succession in 1722, Hongli became the Prince Bao (宝亲王/寶親王). Like many of his uncles, Hongli entered into a battle of succession with his older half-brother Hongshi, who had the support of a large faction of court officials, as well as Yinsi, the Prince Lian. For many years the Yongzheng Emperor did not allow the position of Crown Prince, but many speculated his favoring of Hongli. Hongli went on inspection trips to the south, and was known to be an able negotiator and enforcer. He was also chosen as chief regent on occasions, when his father was away from the capital.
[edit] Ascension to the throne
Even before Hongli's succession was read out to the assembled court, it was widely known who the new emperor would be. The young Hongli had been a favorite of his grandfather, Kangxi, and his father alike; Yongzheng had entrusted a number of important ritual tasks to him while Hongli was still a prince, and included him in important court discussions of military strategy. Hoping to avoid repetition of the succession crisis that had tainted his own accession to the throne, he had the name of his successor placed in a sealed box secured behind the tablet over the throne in the Palace of Heavenly Purity (Qianqing Gong 乾清宫). The name in the box was to be revealed to other members of the imperial family in the presence of all senior ministers only upon the death of the Emperor. Yongzheng died suddenly in 1735, the will was taken out and read out before the entire Qing Court, and Hongli became the 4th Manchu Emperor of China. He took the Calender Name of Qianlong (乾隆), 乾 means heaven, 隆 means prosperity, which mean "Heavenly Prosperity".
[edit] Frontier Wars
- Further information: Ten Great Campaigns
The Qianlong Emperor was a successful military leader, presiding over a huge consolidation in the territory controlled by the Qing dynasty. This was made possible not only by Chinese strength but also by the disunity and declining strength of the Inner Asian peoples. Under Qianlong, Chinese Turkestan was incorporated into the Qing dynasty's rule and renamed Xinjiang, while to the West, Ili was conquered and garrisoned. The Qing also dominated Outer Mongolia after inflicting a final defeat on the Western Mongols. Throughout this period there were continued Mongol interventions in Tibet and a reciprocal spread of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia.
Qianlong again sent armies into Tibet and firmly established the Dalai Lama as ruler, with a Qing resident and garrison to preserve Chinese suzerainty. Further afield, military campaigns against the Burmese, Nepalese, and Gurkhas forced these peoples to submit and send tribute.
The circumstances in Vietnam were not as successful. In 1787 the last Le king fled Vietnam and formally requested that he be restored to his throne in Thanglong (Hanoi today). The Qianlong Emperor agreed and sent a large army into Vietnam to remove the Tay Son (peasant rebels who had captured all of Vietnam). The capital, Thanglong, was conquered in 1788 but a few months later, the Chinese army was defeated in a surprise attack during Tet by Nguyen Hue, the second and most capable of the three Tay Son brothers. The Chinese gave formal protection to the Le emperor and his family, and would not intervene in Vietnam for another 90 years.
Overall the Qianlong Emperor's military expansion captured millions of square miles and brought into the empire non-Han-Chinese peoples--such as Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyzs, Evenks and Mongols--who were potentially hostile. It was also a very expensive enterprise; the funds in the Imperial Treasury were almost all put into military expeditions.[2] This may have been the cause of the later decline of the dynasty--when faced with a Western threat, the army was unable to develop and upgrade its weapons.
Though the wars were successful, they were not overwhelmingly so. The army declined noticeably and had a difficult time facing some enemies: the Jin Chuan area took 2-3 years to conquer--at first the Qing army were mauled, though Yue Zhongqi later took control of the situation. The battle with the Dzungars was closely fought, and caused heavy losses on both sides.
At the end of the frontier wars, the army had started to weaken significantly. In addition to a more lenient military system, warlords became satisfied with their lifestyles. Since most of the warring had taken place, warlords no longer saw any reason to train their armies, resulting in a rapid military decline by the end of Qianlong's reign. This is the main reason for the military's failure against the White Lotus Sect, at the very end of Qianlong's years.
[edit] Artistic Achievements
The Qianlong Emperor was also a major patron of the arts. The most significant of his commissions was a catalogue of all important works on Chinese culture, the Siku Quanshu (四庫全書). Produced in 36,000 volumes, containing about 3450 complete works and employing as many as 15,000 copyists, the entire work took some twenty years. It preserved numerous books, but was also intended as a way to ferret out and suppress perceived political opponents. Some 2,300 works were listed for total suppression and another 350 for partial suppression. The aim was to destroy the writings that were anti-Qing or rebellious, that insulted previous barbarian dynasties, or that dealt with frontier or defense problems.
Qianlong was a prolific poet and a collector of ceramics, an art which flourished during his reign; a substantial part of his collection is in the Percival David Foundation in London.
[edit] European styles
Architecturally, Qianlong took personal interest in the expansion of the Old Summer Palace and commissioned the Italian Jesuit Giuseppe Castiglione for the construction of the Xiyanglou (西洋楼), or the Western-style mansion, to satisfy his taste for exotic buildings and objects. He also commissioned the French Jesuit Michel Benoist, to design a series of timed waterworks and fountains complete with underground machinery and pipes, for the amusement of the Imperial family. The French Jesuit Jean Denis Attiret also became "Painter to the Emperor" Qianlong.
During his reign the Emin Minaret was built in Turfan to commemorate his father.
[edit] Later years
In his later years, Qianlong was spoiled with power and glory, becoming disillusioned and complacent in his reign, placing his trust in corrupt officials like Yu Ming Zhong(于敏中), and later Heshen(和绅).
As Heshen was the highest ranked minister and most favoured by Qianlong at the time, the day-to-day governance of the country was left in his hands, while Qianlong himself indulged in the Arts, Luxuries and Literature. When Heshen was executed it was found that he himself was richer than the country's depleted treasury.
Qianlong began his reign with about 33,950,000 taels of silver in Treasury surplus[3]. At the peak of Qianlong's reign, around 1775, even with further tax cuts, the treasury surplus still reached 73,900,000 taels, a record unmatched by his predecessors, Kangxi or Yongzheng both of whom had implemented remarkable tax cut policies.
However, due to numerous factors such as long term embezzlement and corruption by officials, frequent expeditions South, huge palace constructions, many war and rebellion campaigns as well as his own extravagant lifestyle, all of these cost the treasury a total of 150,200,000 silver taels.[4] This, coupled with his senior age and the lack of political reforms, ushered the beginning of the gradual decline and eventual demise of the Qing dynasty and empire, casting a shadow on his glorious and brilliant political life.[5].
[edit] The Macartney Embassy
During the mid-eighteenth century, Qianlong began to face severe pressures from the West to increase foreign trade. The proposed cultural exchange between the British Empire at the time and the Qing Empire collapsed due to many factors. Firstly, there was a lack of any precedent interaction with overseas foreign kingdoms apart from neighbouring tributory states to guide Qianlong towards a more informed response. Furthermore, competing worldviews that were incompatible between China and Britain, the former holding entrenched beliefs that China was the "central kingdom", and the latter's push for rapid liberation of trade relations, worsened ties.
The British trade ambassador at the time, George Macartney, felt humiliated when granted an audience with the Qianlong Emperor only to find just an Imperial Edict placed on the Dragon Throne. An intrepretation of this incident is that Qianlong believed that the Qing Empire had no need for goods and services that the British could provide and that the British should respect and recognize the Qing Empire as superior. In Qianlong's Edict on Trade with Great Britain, the frustrated Emperor cites the term "barbarians" to refer to Macartney's crew, displaying the common belief in China at the time: that all countries are "peripheral" in comparison to China.[6]
Demands from Heshen and the Qing Court that the British Trade ambassadors should kneel and kowtow to the empty dragon throne provided another point of contention which worsened tensions. The British refused and insisted they would kneel only on one knee and bow to the Dragon throne as was custom for their own monarch. This caused uproar within the Qing Empire at that time as it went against traditional protocol. The Trade ambassadors were dismissed and told to leave China immediately. They were further informed that the Qing Empire had no particular interest in trading with them, with strict orders given to all local governors not to allow the British to carry out any trade or business in China. [7]
[edit] The Titsing Embassy
A Dutch embassy arrived to the Qianlong court in 1795, and would turn out to be the last occasion in which any European appeared before the Chinese Court within the context of traditional Chinese imperial foreign relations.[8]
Representing Dutch and Dutch East India Company interests, Isaac Titsingh traveled to Beijing in 1794-96 for celebrations of the sixtieth anniversary of the Qianlong Emperor's reign.[9] The Titsingh delegation also included the Dutch-American Andreas Everardus van Braam Houckgeest[10], whose detailed description of this embassy to the Chinese court was soon after published in the U.S. and Europe. Titsingh's French translator, Chrétien-Louis-Joseph de Guignes published his own account of the Titsingh mission in 1808. Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France provided an alternate perspective and a useful counterpoint to other reports which were then circulating. Titsingh himself died before he could publish his version of events.
In contrast to Macartney, Isaac Titsingh, the Dutch and VOC emissary in 1795 did not refuse to kowtow. In the year following Mccartney's rebuff, Titsingh and his colleagues were much feted by the Chinese because of what was construed as seemly compliance with conventional court etiquette. [11]
[edit] Abdication
In October 1795, Qianlong officially announced that in the spring of the following year he would voluntarily abdicate his throne and pass the crown to his son. It was said that Qianlong had made a promise during the year of his ascension not to rule longer than his grandfather, the Kangxi Emperor's rule of 61 years as a mark of respect.
In anticipation of his abdication, Qianlong decided to move out of the Hall of Mental Cultivation in the Forbidden City, the residence dedicated only for the reigning sovereign, and ordered the construction of his residence in another part of the Forbidden City; however, Qianlong never moved out of the Hall of Mental Cultivation.
He resigned the throne at the age of 85, in his 60th years of regime, to his beloved son, the Jiaqing emperor at 1795, instead, he held the title "Senior Emperor(太上皇)" until he died in 1799.[12][13].
[edit] Legends
Qianlong was the son of Chen Yuanlong of Haining. Emperor Kangxi chose the heir to his throne based not just on his son's capability to govern the Empire, but also whether his grandson was of no lesser calibre, to ensure the Manchus' everlasting reign over the country. Yongzheng's own son was a weakling and he surreptitiously arranged for his daughter to be swapped for Chen Yuanlong's son, who became the apple of Kangxi's eye. Thus, Yongzheng got to succeed the throne, and his "son", Hongli, subsequently became Emperor Qianlong. Later, Qianlong went to the southern part of the country four times, he stayed in Chen's house in Haining, leaving behind his calligraphy and also frequently issued imperial decrees making and maintaining Haining as a tax-free state.
However there are major problems with this story being: 1) His eldest surviving son Hongshi was only 7 when Hongli was born far too early to make the drastic choice of replacing a child of royal birth with an outsider (and risking disgrace if not death) 2) Yongzheng had three other princes that survived to adulthood who had the potential of ascending the throne. Indeed given the fact that Hongshi was forced to commit suicide, the story would have been far more logical if he was the adopted child of Yongzheng.
Stories about Qianlong visiting the Jiangnan area disguised as a commoner had been a popular topic for many generations. In total, he has visited Jiang Nan for eight times, as opposed to the Kangxi emperor's 6 inspections.
[edit] Family
- Father: The Yong Zheng Emperor (of whom he was the 4th son)
- Mother: Empress Xiao Sheng Xian (1692-1777) of the Niuhuru Clan (Chinese: 孝聖憲皇后; Manchu: Hiyoošungga Enduringge Temgetulehe Hūwanghu)
[edit] Consorts
- Empress Xiao Xian Chun
- Demoted Empress Ulanara, The Step Empress
- Empress Xiao Yi Chun
- Imperial Noble Consort Hui Xian
- Imperial Noble Consort Chun Hui
- Imperial Noble Consort Shu Jia
- Imperial Noble Consort Qing Gong
- Imperial Noble Consort Zhe Min
- Noble Consort Ying
- Noble Consort Wan
- Noble Consort Xun
- Noble Consort Xin
- Noble Consort Yu
- Consort Dun
- Consort Shu
- Consort Rong, The Fragrant Concubine
- Worthy Lady Shun
[edit] Children
Sons
- Eldest son: Prince Yong Huang (1728 - 1750), son of Imperial Noble Consort Che Min
- 2nd: Prince Yong Lian [永璉] (1730 - 1738), 1st Crown Prince, son of Empress Xiao Xian Chun
- 5th: Prince Yong Qi [永琪] (1741-1766), bore the title Prince Rong of the blood (榮親王)
- 7th: Prince Yong Zhong [永琮] (1746 - 1748), 2nd Crown Prince, son of Empress Xiao Xian Chun
- 8th: Prince Yong Xuan [永璇], son of the Imperial Noble Consort Shu Jia
- 11th: Prince Yong Xin [永瑆], son of the Imperial Noble Consort Shu Jia
- 12th: Prince Yong Ji , son of The Step Empress, Ulanara
- 15th: Prince Yong Yan [永琰] (born 1760) the (Jia Qing Emperor), son of Empress Xiao Yi Chun. In 1789 he was made Prince Jia of the 1st rank (嘉親王).
- 17th: Prince Yong Lin [永璘], given the title as the 1st Prince Qing Yong Lin. His grandson is Prince Yi Kuang, bore the title Prince Qing [慶親王奕劻] (February 1836 - January 1918).
- 18th: Prince ?
Daughters
- 1st: Princess ? (1728 - 1729), daughter of Empress Xiao Xian Chun
- 3rd: Princess He Jing [固倫和敬公主] (1731 - 1792), daughter of Empress Xiao Xian Chun
- 4th: Princess He Jia [和硕和嘉公主] (1745 - 1767), daughter of the Imperial Noble Consort Chun Hui
- 5th: Princess ?, daughter of The Step Empress, Ulanara
- 7th: Princess He Jing [固伦和静公主] (1756 - 1775), daughter of Empress Xiao Yi Chun
- 10th: Princess He Xiao (daughter-in-law of He Shen) was spared execution when the Jia Qing Emperor prosecuted Heshen in 1799. She was given some of He Shen's estate.
[edit] See also
- Jean Joseph Marie Amiot
- Giuseppe Castiglione
- Manwen Laodang
- Canton System
- Xi Yang Lou
- Long Corridor
- Putuo Zongcheng Temple
[edit] References
- ^ The Qing Emperors referred their state to as China in international treaties.
- ^ Schirokauer, Conrad & Clark, Donald N. Modern East Asia: A Brief History, 2nd ed. pp. 35. Houghton Mifflin Company. Boston & New York. 2008 ISBN 978-0-618-92070-9.
- ^ http://www.dpm.org.cn/China/phoweb/ExpertsPage/1/E454.htm
- ^ http://www.hoodong.com/wiki/%E4%B9%BE%E9%9A%86
- ^ http://www.dpm.org.cn/China/phoweb/ExpertsPage/1/E459.htm
- ^ For a full text of the edict, see Têng, Ssu-yü, and John King Fairbank, eds., China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839-1923. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979).
- ^ For a conventional account of the audience question, see Alain Peyrefitte, The Immobile Empire, translated by Jon Rotschild (New York: Knopf: Distributed by Random House, 1992.)
For a critique of the above narrative, see James L. Hevia, Cherishing Men from Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1793.(Durham: Duke University Press, 1995).
For a discussion on Hevia's book, see exchange between Hevia and Joseph W. Esherick in Modern China 24, no. 2 (1998). - ^ O'Neil, Patricia O. (1995). Missed Opportunities: Late 18th Century Chinese Relations with England and the Netherlands. [Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington]
- ^ Duyvendak, J.J.L. (1937). 'The Last Dutch Embassy to the Chinese Court (1794-1795).' T'oung Pao 33:1-137.
- ^ van Braam Houckgeest, A.E. (1797). Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 et 1795 Philadelphia; _____. (1798). An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India Company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1794 and 1795. London.
- ^ van Braam, A.E. (1797). Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises, vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 & 1795.
- ^ http://www.dpm.org.cn/China/phoweb/ExpertsPage/1/E459.htm
- ^ http://www.dpm.org.cn/China/phoweb/ExpertsPage/1/E460.htm
- Braam, Andreas Everardus van (1795). Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises, vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 & 1795. Philadelphia: M. L. E. Moreau de Saint-Mery.
- _____. (1798). An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company to the court of the emperor of China in the years 1794-1795. London: Phillips.
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Qianlong Emperor
Born: September 25 1711 Died: February 7 1799 |
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| Preceded by The Yongzheng Emperor |
Emperor of China 1735-1796 |
Succeeded by The Jiaqing Emperor |
