Pressurised heavy water reactor
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A pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR) is a nuclear power reactor that uses unenriched natural uranium as its fuel and heavy water as its moderator (deuterium oxide D2O). The heavy water is kept under pressure in order to raise its boiling point, allowing it to be heated to higher temperatures and thereby carry more heat out of the reactor core. While heavy water is expensive, the reactor can operate without expensive fuel enrichment facilities thus balancing the costs.
The first commercial PHWRs were a Canadian design built by AECL, the CANDUs. Marketed world-wide, 29 are in use or under refurbishment. The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) has built and operates 13 PHWR units. Initially these indigenously built reactors were reverse-engineered from the CANDU design, but later models have diverged significantly. Siemens has also offered a PHWR design in the past, completing one unit in Argentina and partially completing a larger version at the same site.
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[edit] Purpose of using heavy water
See nuclear reactor physics and nuclear fission and heavy water for complete details.
The key to maintaining a nuclear reaction within a nuclear reactor is to use the neutrons being released during fission to stimulate fission in other nuclei. With careful control over the geometry and reaction rates, this can lead to a self-sustaining chain reaction, a state known as "criticality".
Natural uranium consists of a mixture of various isotopes, primarily 238U and a much smaller amount (about 0.72% by weight) of 235U. 238U can only be fissioned by neutrons that are fairly energetic, about 1 MeV or above. No amount of 238U can be made "critical", however, since it will tend to parasitically absorb more neutrons than it releases by the fission process. 235U, on the other hand, can support a self-sustained chain reaction, but due to the low natural abundance of 235U, natural uranium cannot achieve criticality by itself.
The "trick" to making a working reactor is to slow some of the neutrons to the point where their probability of causing nuclear fission in 235U increases to a level that permits a sustained chain reaction in the uranium as a whole. This requires the use of a neutron moderator, which absorbs some of the neutrons' kinetic energy, slowing them down to an energy comparable to the thermal energy of the moderator nuclei themselves (leading to the terminology of "thermal neutrons" and "thermal reactors"). During this slowing-down process it is beneficial to physically separate the neutrons from the uranium, since 238U nuclei have an enormous parasitic affinity for neutrons in this intermediate energy range (a reaction known as "resonance" absorption). This is a fundamental reason for designing reactors with discrete solid fuel separated by moderator, rather than employing a more homogeneous mixture of the two materials.
Water makes an excellent moderator; the hydrogen atoms in the water molecules are very close in mass to a single neutron, and thus have a potential for high energy transfer, similar conceptually to the collision of two billiard balls. However, in addition to being a good moderator, water is also fairly effective at absorbing neutrons. Using water as a moderator will absorb enough neutrons that there will be too few left over to react with the small amount of 235U in the fuel, again precluding criticality in natural uranium. Instead, light water reactors first enhance the amount of 235U in the uranium, producing enriched uranium, which generally contains between 3% and 5% 235U by weight (the waste from this process is known as depleted uranium, consisting primarily of 238U). In this enriched form there is enough 235U to react with the water-moderated neutrons to maintain criticality.
One complication of this approach is the requirement to build an uranium enrichment facility, which are generally expensive to build and operate. They also present a nuclear proliferation concern; the same systems used to enrich the 235U can also be used to produce much more "pure" weapons-grade material (90% or more 235U), suitable for producing a nuclear bomb. This is not a trivial exercise, by any means, but simple enough that enrichment facilities present a significant nuclear proliferation risk.
An alternative solution to the problem is to use a moderator that does not absorb neutrons as readily as water. In this case potentially all of the neutrons being released can be moderated and used in reactions with the 235U, in which case there is enough 235U in natural uranium to sustain criticality. One such moderator is heavy water, or deuterium-oxide. Although it reacts dynamically with the neutrons in a similar fashion to light water (albeit with less energy transfer on average, given that heavy hydrogen, or deuterium, is about twice the mass of hydrogen), it already has the extra neutron that light water would normally tend to absorb.
[edit] Advantages and Disadvantages
The use of heavy water moderator is the key to the PHWR system, enabling the use of natural uranium as fuel (in the form of ceramic UO2), which means that it can be operated without expensive uranium enrichment facilities. Additionally, the mechanical arrangement of the PHWR, which places most of the moderator at lower temperatures, is particularly efficient because the resulting thermal neutrons are "more thermal" than in traditional designs, where the moderator normally runs hot. This means that the CANDU is not only able to "burn" natural uranium and other fuels, but tends to do so more effectively as well.
However, the use of natural uranium fuel does have a drawback: increased volumes of spent fuel relative to other reactor types using enriched fuel.
[edit] References
- Economics of Nuclear Power from Heavy Water Reactors
- Nuclear Power Program - Stage1 - Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
