Low-carbon economy

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It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Mitigation of global warming. (Discuss)

A Low-Carbon Economy (LCE) is a popular term that refers to an Economy which has a minimal output of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions into the biosphere, but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas Carbon Dioxide. Recently, most of scientific and public opinion has come to the conclusion there is an unreasonable accumulation of GHGs(especially CO2) in our atmosphere; our species is to blame for this accumulation, and the over-concentrations of these gases will fundamentally change our climate dangerously in the foreseeable future^[1]. Globally implemented LCE's therefore, are proposed as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change, and as a precursor to an ideal zero-carbon economy.

Nuclear Power, or, the proposed strategies of Carbon capture and storage(CCS) have been proposed as the primary means to achieve a LCE while continuing to exploit non-renewable resources; there is concern, however, with the matter of spent-nuclear-fuel storage, and the uncertainty of costs and time needed to successfully implement CCS worldwide and with guarantees that the stored emissions will not leak into the biosphere. Alternatively, many have proposed renewable energy should be the main basis of a LCE, but, they have their associated problems of high-cost and inefficiency; this is changing, however, since investment and production have been growing significantly in recent times ^[2]. Furthermore, regardless of the effect to the biosphere by GHG emissions, the growing issue of peak oil may also be reason enough for a transition to an LCE.

The aim of a LCE is to integrate all aspects of itself from its manufacturing, agriculture, transportation and power-generation etc. around technologies that produce energy and materials with little GHG emission; and thus, around populations, buildings, machines and devices which use those energies and materials efficiently, and, dispose of or recycle its wastes so as to have a minimal output of GHGs. Furthermore, it has been proposed that to make the transition to an LCE economically viable we would have to attribute a cost(per unit output) to GHGs through means such as emissions trading and/or a carbon tax.

Contents 1 Primary Sector 1.1 Agriculture 1.1.1 Crops 1.1.2 Livestock 1.2 Hunting and Fishing 1.3 Forestry 1.4 Mining 2 Secondary Sector 2.1 Basic metals Processing 2.2 Nonmetallic product Processing 2.3 Wood Processing 2.4 Paper and Pulp Making 2.5 Food Processing 3 Tertiary Sector 3.1 Retail 3.2 Transportation Services 4 Initial steps 4.1 Asia and Ocenia 4.1.1 Australia 4.1.2 China 4.2 Europe 4.2.1 Iceland 4.2.2 United Kingdom 4.3 United States 4.4 Cities 5 Zero-carbon economy 6 Education 7 See also 8 External links 9 References

[edit] Primary Sector

[edit] Agriculture

See Low carbon diet

Foodstuffs should be produced as close as possible to the final consumers (preferably within walking/cycling distance). This will reduce the amount of carbon-based energy necessary to transport the foodstuffs. Consumers can also buy fresh food rather than processed food, since carbon-based energy might be used to process the food. Cooking presents another opportunity to conserve energy. Energy could be saved if farmers produced more foods that people would eat raw.

Also, most of the agricultural facilities in the developed world are mechanized due to rural electrification. Rural electrification has produced significant productivity gains, but it also uses a lot of energy. For this and other reasons (such as transport costs) in the low-carbon, rural areas will rely heavily on locally and renewably produced electricity.

Irrigation can be one of the main components of an agricultural facility's energy consumption. In parts of California it can be up to 90%. ^[3] In the low carbon economy, irrigation equipment will be maintained and continually updated and farms will use less irrigation water.

[edit] Crops

Different crops require different amounts of energy input. For example, glasshouse crops, irrigated crops, and orchards require a lot of energy to maintain, while row crops and field crops don’t need as much maintenance. Those glasshouse and irrigated crops that do exist will incorporate the following improvements: ^[4]

Glasshouse crops

• environmental control systems
• heat recovery using condensers
• heat storage using buffer tanks
• heat retention using thermal screens
• alternative fuels (e.g. waste wood)
• cogeneration (heat and power)

Irrigated arable crops

• soil moisture measurement to regulate irrigation
• variable speed drives on pumps

[edit] Livestock

Livestock operations can also use a lot of energy depending on how they are run. Feed lots use animal feed made from corn, soybeans, and other crops. Energy must be expended to produce these crops, process and transport them. Free-range animals find their own vegetation to feed on. The farmer may expend energy to take care of that vegetation, but not nearly as much as the farmer who grows cereal and oil-seed crops.

Many livestock operations currently use a lot of energy to water their livestock. In the low-carbon economy, such operations will use more water conservation methods such as rainwater collection, water cisterns, etc and they will also pump/distribute that water with on-site renewable energy sources (most likely wind and solar).

Due to rural electrification, most agricultural facilities in the developed world use a lot of electricity. In a low-carbon economy, farms will be run and equipped to allow for greater energy efficiency. The dairy industry, for example, will incorporate the following changes: ^[5]

Irrigated Dairy

• heat recovery on milk vats
• variable speed drives on motors/pumps
• heat recovery from hot water wash
• soil moisture measurement to regulate irrigation
• biodigester with cogen (heat & power)
• vat wrap
• solar water heating
• ripple control
• ice bank
• chemical substitute for hot water wash

[edit] Hunting and Fishing

Fishing is quite energy intensive. Improvements such as heat recovery on refrigeration and trawl net technology will be common in the low-carbon economy. ^[6]

[edit] Forestry

In the low-carbon economy, forestry operations will be focused on low-impact practices and regrowth. Forest managers will make sure that they do not disturb soil based carbon reserves too much. Specialized tree farms will be the main source of material for many products. Quick maturing tree varieties will be grown on short rotations in order to maximize output. ^[7]

[edit] Mining

Main article: Gas flare

Flaring and venting of natural gas in oil wells is a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions. Its contribution to greenhouse gases has declined by three-quarters in absolute terms since a peak in the 1970s of approximately 110 million metric tons/year and now accounts for about 1/2 of one percent of all anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions.^[8] The World Bank estimates that 100 billion cubic meters of natural gas are flared or vented annually, an amount equivalent to the combined annual gas consumption of Germany and France, twice the annual gas consumption of Africa, three quarters of Russian gas exports, or enough to supply the entire world with gas for 20 days. This flaring is highly concentrated: 10 countries account for 75% of emissions, and twenty for 90%.^[9] The largest flaring operations occur in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The leading contributors to gas flaring are (in declining order): Nigeria, Russia, Iran, Algeria, Mexico, Venezuela, Indonesia, and the United States.^[10]

[edit] Secondary Sector

[edit] Basic metals Processing

• high efficiency electric motors
• induction furnaces
• heat recovery

[edit] Nonmetallic product Processing

• variable speed drives
• injection molding - replace hydraulic with electric servo motors

[edit] Wood Processing

• high efficiency motors
• high efficiency fans
• dehumidifier driers

[edit] Paper and Pulp Making

• variable speed drives
• high efficiency motors

[edit] Food Processing

• high efficiency boilers
• heat recovery e.g. refrigeration
• solar hot water for pre-heating
• bio fuels e.g. tallow, wood

[edit] Tertiary Sector

[edit] Retail

Retail operations in the low-carbon economy will have several new features. One will be high efficiency lighting such as compact fluorescent, halogen, and eventually LED light sources. Many retail stores will also feature roof-top solar panel arrays. These make sense because solar panels produce the most energy during the daytime and during the summer. These are the same times that electricity is the most expensive and also the same times that stores use the most electricity. ^[11]

[edit] Transportation Services

• More energy efficiency and alternative propulsion:
  • Increased focus on fuel efficient vehicle shapes and configurations, with more vehicle hybridization, particularly through plug-in hybrids.
  • More alternative and flex-fuel vehicles (based on local conditions and availability)
  • Driver training for more fuel efficiency.
  • Low carbon-biofuels cellulosic (biodiesel, bioethanol, biobutanol )
  • Petroleum fuel surcharges will be a more significant part of consumer costs.
• Less international trade of physical objects, despite more overall trade (as measure by value of goods)
• Greater use of marine and electric rail transport, less use of air and truck transport.
• More pipeline capacity for common fluid commodities such as water, ethanol, butanol, natural gas, petroleum, and hydrogen (in addition to gasoline and diesel).

See ^[12][13][14]

[edit] Initial steps

Internationally, the most prominent early step in the direction of a low-carbon economy was the signing of the Kyoto Protocol, which came into force on February 16, 2005, under which most industrialized countries committed to reduce their carbon emissions.^[15][16] Importantly, all member nations of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development except the United States have ratified the protocol.

[edit] Asia and Ocenia

[edit] Australia

Although the Australian Government has been reluctant to implement any emission reduction targets or regulations, the market has seen the voluntary development of carbon neutral businesses. Many Australian carbon offset companies offer carbon neutrality of businesses based on life cycle impact assessments of varying detail. One offset provider,the Carbon Reduction Institute, has produced a Low Carbon Directory, to promote a low carbon economy in Australia. As recent as December 2007, the Australian prime minister Kevin Rudd has signed the Kyoto protocol, the first document he signed as prime minister of Australia.

[edit] China

In China, the city of Dongtan is to be built to be produce zero net greenhouse gas emissions.^[17]

[edit] Europe

[edit] Iceland

Main article: Renewable energy in Iceland

By exploiting geothermal energy and hydropower, renewable energy in Iceland provides over 70% of the nation's primary energy needs since 1999, and 99.9% of Iceland's electricity.^[18] As a result Iceland's carbon emissions per capita are 62% lower than those of the United States^[19] despite using more primary energy per capita.^[20] Iceland expects to use 100% renewable energy by 2050 by generating hydrogen fuel from renewable energy sources.

[edit] United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, a draft Climate Change Bill outlining a framework for the transition to a low-carbon economy was published on March 13, 2007. This legislation would require a 60% cut in the UK's carbon emissions by 2050 (compared to 1990 levels), with an intermediate target of between 26% and 32% by 2020.^[21] If approved, the UK would likely become the first country to set such a long-range and significant carbon reduction target into law.^[22]

[edit] United States

Low Carbon Economy Act of 2007. ^[23]

[edit] Cities

Companies are planning large scale developments without using fossil fuels. Development plans such as those by World Wide Assets LLC for entire cities using only geothermal energy for electricity, geothermal desalination, and employing full recycling systems for water and waste are under development (2006) in Mexico and Australia.

[edit] Zero-carbon economy

Main article: Post carbon

A zero-carbon (also called non-carbon or post-carbon) economy is a step beyond a low-carbon economy. This may include the complete elimation of the use of fossil fuels and be based on renewable alternative energy sources.

As of 2007, Iceland and Sweden, with their petroleum phase-outs, are making big progresses in this direction, with a lot of organizations in the rest of countries, promoting also zero-carbon.

[edit] Education

The University of East Anglia has a Strategic Carbon Management MBA.

[edit] See also

• Alternative propulsion
• Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change
• Carbon neutral
• Cenex
• Electric vehicle
• Emission standard
• Energy Neutral Design
• Energy policy
• Environmental economics
• Industrial revolution
• Low-carbon building
• Low Carbon Communities
• Low-carbon emission
• Mobile Emission Reduction Credit (MERC)
• Nuclear residue
• Oil spill
• One Watt Initiative
• Peak oil
• Plug-in hybrid
• Renewable heat
• Sustainable development
• Vegetable oil economy
• World economy
• 2000 Watt society
• World energy resources and consumption

[edit] External links

• Senate.gov: The “Low Carbon Economy Act” of 2007 and Status
• British Petroleum: Gas and Power in a Low Carbon Economy
• DTI UK: Creating a low carbon economy
• MSNBC.com Europe eyes 'low-carbon economy'
• IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute: Low Carbon Economy discussion paper
• National Institute for Environmental Studies, Japan: Low Carbon Society Scenarios toward 2050 (Japanese - English)
• Hydrogen Economy
• Grant Thornton International Business Report Energy & Environment survey
• Carbon Management MBA.
• Low Carbon Knowledge Transfer Networks
• Australia 'low-carbon directory'
• 'Online resource for the low carbon economy'

[edit] References