ebooksgratis.com

See also ebooksgratis.com: no banners, no cookies, totally FREE.

CLASSICISTRANIERI HOME PAGE - YOUTUBE CHANNEL
Privacy Policy Cookie Policy Terms and Conditions
Infant formula - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Infant formula

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 This article or section may be inaccurate or unbalanced in favor of certain viewpoints.
Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the talk page.
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2008)
An infant being fed from a baby bottle.
An infant being fed from a baby bottle.

Infant formula is an artificial substitute for human breast milk, designed for infant consumption. The first preparations for the feeding of infants were produced commercially in 1867 by Justus von Liebig. Today, most infant formulas are based on either cow milk or soy milk; some, for infants with special dietary needs, are highly modified and may contain neither cow milk nor soy. Use of infant formula has been decreasing in industrial countries for over forty years[citation needed] as a result of antenatal education, increased understanding of the risks of infant formula, and social activism.

A 2001 WHO report finds that infant formula prepared in accord with applicable Codex Alimentarius standards is a nutritionally adequate and safe complementary food and a suitable breast milk substitute. Nonetheless, with few exceptions the WHO report recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life.[1]

Infant formula is necessarily an imperfect approximation of breast milk because:

  • The exact chemical properties of breast milk are still unknown.[2]
  • A mother's breast milk changes in response to the feeding habits of her baby and over time, thus adjusting to the infant's individual growth and development.[3]
  • Breast milk includes a mother's white blood cells that help the baby avoid or fight off infections and give his immature immune system the benefit of his mother's immune system that has many years of experience with the germs common in their environment.

Contents

[edit] History of formula

[edit] Early infant foods

Throughout history, mothers who could not (or chose not to) breastfeed their babies either employed the use of a wet nurse[4] or, less frequently, prepared food for their babies, a process known as "dry nursing."[5][4] Baby food composition varied according to region and economic status.[5]. In Europe and America during the early 19th century, the prevalence of wet nursing began to decrease, while the practice of feeding babies mixtures based on animal milk rose in popularity.[6][7]

Poster advertisement for Nestle's Milk by Théophile Alexandre Steinlen, 1895
Poster advertisement for Nestle's Milk by Théophile Alexandre Steinlen, 1895

This trend was driven by cultural changes as well as increased sanitation measures,[8] and it continued throughout the 19th and much of the 20th century, with a notable increase after Elijah Pratt invented and patented the India-rubber nipple in 1845.[9][4] As early as 1846, scientists and nutritionists noted an increase in medical problems and infant mortality was associated with dry nursing.[10][6] In an attempt to improve the quality of manufactured baby foods, in 1867, Justus von Liebig developed the world's first commercial infant formula, Liebig's Soluble Food for Babies.[11] The success of this product quickly gave rise to competitors such as Mellin's Infant Food, Ridge's Food for Infants and Nestle's Milk.[12]

[edit] Raw milk formulas

As physicians became increasingly concerned about the quality of such foods, medical recommendations such as Thomas Morgan Rotch's "percentage method" (published in 1890) began to be distributed, and gained widespread popularity by 1907.[4] These complex formulas recommended that parents mix cow's milk, water, cream, and sugar or honey in specific ratios to achieve the nutritional balance believed to approximate human milk reformulated in such a way as to accommodate the believed digestive capability of the infant.[13]

At the dawn of the 20th century in the United States, most infants were breastfed, although many received some formula feeding as well. Home-made "percentage method" formulas were more commonly used than commercial formulas in both Europe and the United States.[14] They were less expensive and were widely believed to be healthier. However, formula-fed babies exhibited more diet-associated medical problems, such as scurvy, rickets and bacterial infections than breastfed babies. By 1920, the incidence of scurvy and rickets in formula-fed babies had greatly decreased through the addition of orange juice and cod liver oil to home-made formulas. Bacterial infections associated with formula remained a problem more prevalent in the United States than in Europe, where milk was usually boiled prior to use in formulas.[14]

[edit] Evaporated milk formulas

In the 1920s and 1930s, evaporated milk began to be widely commercially available at low prices, and several clinical studies suggested that babies fed evaporated milk formula thrive as well as breastfed babies[4][15] (these findings are not supported by modern research.) These studies, accompanied by the affordable price of evaporated milk and the availability of the home icebox initiated a tremendous rise in the use of evaporated milk formulas.[13] By the late 1930s, the use of evaporated milk formulas in the United States surpassed all commercial formulas, and by 1950 over half of all babies in the United States were reared on such formulas.[4]

[edit] Commercial formulas

In parallel with the enormous shift (in industrialized nations) away from breastfeeding to home-made formulas, nutrition scientists continued to analyze human milk and attempt to make infant formulas that more closely matched its composition.[13] Maltose and dextrins were believed nutrionally important, and in 1912, the Mead Johnson Company released a milk additive called Dextri-Maltose. This formula was made available to mothers only by physicians. In 1919, milkfats were replaced with a blend of animal and vegetable fats as part of the continued drive to closer simulate human milk. This formula was called SMA for "simulated milk adapted."[4]

In the late 1920s, Alfred Bosworth released Similac (for "similar to lactation"), and Mead Johnson released Sobee.[4] Several other formulas were released over the next few decades, but commercial formulas did not begin to seriously compete with evaporated milk formulas until the 1950s. The reformulation and concentration of Similac in 1951, and the introduction (by Mead Johnson) of Enfamil in 1959 were accompanied by marketing campaigns that provided inexpensive formula to hospitals and pediatricians.[4] By the early 1960s, commercial formulas were more commonly used than evaporated milk formulas, which all but vanished in the 1970s. By the early 1970s, over 75% of babies in the United States were fed on formulas, almost entirely commercially produced.[13]

When birth rates in industrial nations tapered off during the 1960s, infant formula companies heightened marketing campaigns in non-industrialized countries. Unfortunately, poor sanitation led to steeply increased mortality rates among infants fed formula prepared with contaminated (drinking) water.[citation needed] Organized protests, the most famous of which was the Nestlé boycott of 1977, called for an end to unethical marketing. This boycott is ongoing, as the current coordinators maintain that Nestlé engages in marketing practices which violate the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes.

[edit] Store Brand (Generic) Infant formulas

Store brand infant formula was first introduced in the United States in 1997 by PBM Products. All infant formula brands adhere to [Food and Drug Administration] (FDA) guidelines.

The Mayo Clinic stated in a November 2007 publication: “As with most consumer products, brand-name infant formulas cost more than generic brands. But that doesn't mean that brand-name [Similac, Nestle, Enfamil] formulas are better. Although manufacturers may vary somewhat in their formula recipes, the FDA requires that all formulas contain the same nutrient density.”

Private label infant formulas have allowed the leading food and drug retailers to provide formula to customers that is labeled under the store brands of companies such as Wal-Mart, Target, Kroger, Loblaws, and Walgreens.

[edit] Usage since 1970s

Since the early 1970's, industrial countries have witnessed a dramatic resurgence in breastfeeding among children from newborn to 6 months of age.[16] However, this upswing in breastfeeding has been accompanied by a deferment in the average age of introduction of other foods (such as cow's milk), resulting in increased use of both breastfeeding and infant formula between the ages of 3-12 months. [13][16]

Leading health organizations (e.g. US CDC, WHO, US HHS) are attempting to increase the prevalence of breastfeeding through public awareness campaigns. [17] [18] [19] The goals of these programs vary by organization, with recommended breastfeeding ages ranging between birth and 24 months.[20] Additionally, regulatory initiatives also encourage breastfeeding. For example, the International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes requires infant formula companies to preface their product information with statements that breastfeeding is the best way of feeding babies and that a substitute should only be used after consultation with health professionals.[21]

[edit] Choosing to use infant formula

Reasons for using infant formula include:

  • Due to the mother's health: The mother is infected with HIV[22] or tuberculosis.[22] She is malnourished or has had certain kinds of breast surgery. She is taking any kind of drug that could harm the baby,[22] or drinks unsafe levels of alcohol.
  • The baby is unable to breastfeed: The child has a birth defect or inborn error of metabolism such as galactosemia that makes breastfeeding difficult or impossible.
  • Due to absence of the mother: The child is adopted, orphaned, or in the sole custody of a man. The mother is separated from her child by being in prison, or a mental hospital. The mother has abandoned the child.
  • Due to family pressures: Family members, such as mother's husband or boyfriend, encourage use of infant formula.
  • Due to under-education: The mother believes that her breast milk is of low quality or in low supply, or that breastfeeding will decrease her energy, health, or attractiveness. The mother is not trained sufficiently to breastfeed without pain and to produce enough milk.
  • Due to financial pressures: Maternity leave is unpaid, insufficient, or lacking. The mother's employment interferes with breastfeeding.
  • Due to societal structure: Breastfeeding is difficult or forbidden at the mother's job, school, place of worship or while commuting. The mother feels infant formula is socially preferable.
  • Due to personal beliefs: The mother feels that breasts are too sexual for a baby or feels uncomfortable breastfeeding around other people. Nursing by a relative or paid wet-nurse is socially unsupported, believed to be unhygienic, or too expensive. Also, the mother does not want to breastfeed or prefers to use both breast milk and infant formula.
  • Due to dietary concerns: The contents of breastmilk are influenced by the dietary habits of the mother. If the mother consumes a food that contains an allergen breastfeeding may, for a brief period after consumption, provoke an allergic reaction in the infant.
  • Due to lifestyle: In some cultures (e.g., nomadic north African tribes) infants do not receive sufficient sunlight to generate Vitamin D (to protect the baby from the elements the mothers always keep the child wrapped in cloth).[citation needed] Infant Formula can be fortified with Vitamin D.

[edit] Nutritional content

Besides breast milk, infant formula is the only other infant milk which the medical community considers nutritionally acceptable for infants under the age of one year. Cow's milk is not recommended because of its high protein and electrolyte (salt) content which may put a strain on an infant's immature kidneys. Evaporated milk, although perhaps easier to digest due to the processing of the protein, is still nutritionally inadequate.

Most of the world's supply of infant formula is produced in the United States. The nutrient content is regulated by the American Food and Drug Administration (FDA) based on recommendations by the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. The following must be included in all formulas produced in the U.S.:

In addition, formulas not made with cow's milk must include biotin, choline, and inositol.

Hypoallergenic formulas reduce the likelihood of certain medical complications in babies with specific health problems. Baby formula can be synthesized from raw amino acids. This kind of formula is sometimes referred to as elemental infant formula or as medical food because of its specialized nature. While quite expensive, such formula is hypoallergenic and is sometimes used for babies with severe allergies to cow's milk and soy. Some commercial brands are Neocate and Peptamen. Being purely synthetic monomeric amino acids, it is also quite foul-tasting to adults.

[edit] Variations

Infant formula is available in powder, liquid concentrate and ready-to-feed forms, which are prepared by the caregiver or parent in small batches and fed to the infant, usually with either a baby bottle or cup. It is very important to measure powders or concentrates accurately to achieve the intended final product. It is advisable that all equipment that comes into contact with the infant formula be cleaned and sterilized before each use. Proper refrigeration is essential for any infant formula which is prepared in advance.

[edit] Controversy and science

The use of infant formula itself has come under scrutiny. Most leading health organizations today recommend breastfeeding for newborns through 12 months of age, and some through 24 months.[20] Studies have found infants in developed countries who consume formula are at increased risk for acute otitis media, non-specific gastroenteritis, severe lower respiratory tract infections, atopic dermatitis, asthma, obesity, type 1 and 2 diabetes, childhood leukemia, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), eczema, and necrotizing enterocolitis when compared to infants who are breastfed.[23] [24] [25] [26]

Although some studies have found an association between infant formular and lower cognitive development [27], other studies have found no correlation.[23]

[edit] Risks increased

In studies, formula-feeding is associated with increased likelihood of the following conditions in infants:

[edit] Risks decreased

Infected mothers passing on

Environmental contaminants

Malnutrition

  • Iron deficiency
  • Vitamin deficiencies
  • Inadequate nutrition during transition to solid foods[106]

[edit] Manufacturers

Major infant formula manufacturers include:

S-26 Gold, Promil Gold, Progress Gold, S-26, Promil, Promil Kid, Bonna, Bonamil, Bonakid 1+, Bonakid 3+, Nursoy

  • Parent's Choice
  • Bright Beginnings
  • Gerber Products Company
  • Earth's Best owned by Hain Celestial
  • Organic Baby
  • Danone recently acquired Royal Numino, Dumex, Milupa

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Secretariat, World Health Organization (24 November 2001). "Infant and Young Child Nutrition: Global strategy for infant and young child feeding" (PDF)., World Health Organization. WHO Executive Board 109th Session provisional agenda item 3.8 (EB109/12). 
  2. ^ Hoffman J (2003-08-07), “Hot Milk: The unbottled truth about formula”, Today's Parent, <http://www.todaysparent.com/baby/breastfeeding/article.jsp?content=20030807_101250_216> 
  3. ^ Prentice A (December 1996). "Constituents of human milk". Food and Nutrition Bulletin 17. United Nations University. 
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Schuman A (2003-02-01). "A concise history of infant formula (twists and turns included)". . Contemporary Pediatric Retrieved on 2006-09-16.
  5. ^ a b Olver, Lynne (2004). Food Timeline -- history notes: baby food. Retrieved on 2006-09-16.
  6. ^ a b Spaulding, Mary; Penny Welch (1994). Nurturing Yesterday's Child: A Portrayal of the Drake Collection of Paediatric History. B C Decker Inc. ISBN 0-920474-91-8. 
  7. ^ [Sarah Josepha] (1852). The Ladies' New Book of Cookery: A Practical System for Private Families in Town and Country.. New York: H. Long & Brother, 437. 
  8. ^ Committee on the Evaluation of the Addition of Ingredients New to Infant Formula (2004). "Infant Formula: Evaluating the Safety of New Ingredients". . The National Academies Press Retrieved on 2006-09-16.
  9. ^ The history of the feeding bottle. Retrieved on 2006-09-16.
  10. ^ Simon, Johann Franz (1846). Animal chemistry : with reference to the physiology and pathology of man. Lea and Blanchard. OCLC 5884760. 
  11. ^ Levenstein, Harvey (1988). Revolution at the Table: The Transformation of the American Diet. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-520-23439-1. 
  12. ^ Levenstein, Harvey (June, 1983). ""Best for Babies" or "Preventable Infanticide"? The Controversy over Artificial Feeding of Infants in America, 1880-1920". Journal of American History 70 (1): 75-94. 
  13. ^ a b c d e Fomon, Samuel J. (2001). "Infant Feeding in the 20th Century: Formula and Beikost"., San Diego, CA: Department of Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Iowa. Retrieved on 2006-09-16. 
  14. ^ a b Friedenwald, Julius; John Ruhrah (1910). Diet in Health and Disease. New York: W.B. Saunders Co.. 
  15. ^ Marriott, William McKim; Schoenthal, L. (1929). "An experimental study of the use of unsweetened evaporated milk for the preparation of infant feeding formulas". Archives of Pediatrics 46: 135-148. 
  16. ^ a b Ryan, Alan (April 4, 1997). "The Resurgence of Breastfeeding in the United States". PEDIATRICS 99 (4): e12. American Academy of Pediatrics. 
  17. ^ Promotion & Support of Breastfeeding and Obesity Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (May 22, 2007). Retrieved on May 24, 2008.
  18. ^ United States Department of Health and Human Services (June 4, 2006). "Public Service Campaign to Promote Breastfeeding Awareness Launched". Press release. Retrieved on May 22, 2008.
  19. ^ Promoting proper feeding for infants and young children. World Health Organization. Retrieved on May 24, 2008.
  20. ^ a b Breastfeeding Frequently Asked Questions. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (May 22, 2007). Retrieved on May 24, 2008.
  21. ^ (1981) International Code of Marketing of Breast-Milk Substitutes. World Health Organization. ISBN 9789241541602. 
  22. ^ a b c When should a mother avoid breastfeeding?. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2006-08-26). Retrieved on 2007-02-25.
  23. ^ a b Stanley Ip, MD; Mei Chung, M.P.H.,Gowri Raman, M.D.,Priscilla Chew, M.P.H.,Nombulelo Magula, M.D.,Deirdre DeVine, M.Litt.,Thomas Trikalinos, M.D., Ph.D., Joseph Lau, M.D. (April 2007). "Breastfeeding and Maternal and Infant Health Outcomes in Developed Countries". . Tufts-New England Medical Center Evidence-Based Practice Center Retrieved on May 22, 2008.
  24. ^ Riordan JM (1997). "The cost of not breastfeeding: a commentary". J Hum Lact 13 (2): 93-7. doi:10.1177/089033449701300202. PMID 9233193. 
  25. ^ Sadauskaite-Kuehne V, Ludvigsson J, Padaiga Z, Jasinskiene E, Samuelsson U (2004). "Longer breastfeeding is an independent protective factor against development of type 1 diabetes mellitus in childhood". Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev. 20 (2): 150-7. doi:10.1002/dmrr.425. PMID 15037991. 
  26. ^ Pratt HF (1984). "Breastfeeding and eczema". Early Hum. Dev. 9 (3): 283–90. doi:10.1016/0378-3782(84)90039-2. PMID 6734490. 
  27. ^ McCann JC, Ames BN (2005). "Is docosahexaenoic acid, an n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid, required for development of normal brain function? An overview of evidence from cognitive and behavioral tests in humans and animals". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 82 (2): 281-95. PMID 16087970. 
  28. ^ Kadir T, Uygun B, Akyüz S (2005). "Prevalence of Candida species in Turkish children: relationship between dietary intake and carriage". Arch. Oral Biol. 50 (1): 33-7. doi:10.1016/j.archoralbio.2004.07.004. PMID 15598415. 
  29. ^ Quigley MA, Cumberland P, Cowden JM, Rodrigues LC (2006). "How protective is breast feeding against diarrhoeal disease in infants in 1990s England? A case-control study". Arch. Dis. Child. 91 (3): 245-50. doi:10.1136/adc.2005.074260. PMID 16308409. 
  30. ^ Newburg DS, Ruiz-Palacios GM, Altaye M, et al (2004). "Innate protection conferred by fucosylated oligosaccharides of human milk against diarrhea in breastfed infants". Glycobiology 14 (3): 253-63. doi:10.1093/glycob/cwh020. PMID 14638628. 
  31. ^ a b Scariati PD, Grummer-Strawn LM, Fein SB (1997). "A longitudinal analysis of infant morbidity and the extent of breastfeeding in the United States". Pediatrics 99 (6): E5. doi:10.1542/peds.99.6.e5. PMID 9164801. 
  32. ^ Dewey KG, Heinig MJ, Nommsen-Rivers LA (1995). "Differences in morbidity between breast-fed and formula-fed infants". J. Pediatr. 126 (5 Pt 1): 696-702. PMID 7751991. 
  33. ^ Popkin BM, Adair L, Akin JS, Black R, Briscoe J, Flieger W (1990). "Breast-feeding and diarrheal morbidity". Pediatrics 86 (6): 874-82. PMID 2251024. 
  34. ^ Abu-Ekteish F, Zahraa J (2002). "Hypernatraemic dehydration and acute gastro-enteritis in children". Ann Trop Paediatr 22 (3): 245-9. doi:10.1179/027249302125001624. PMID 12369489. 
  35. ^ Silfverdal SA, Bodin L, Ulanova M, Hahn-Zoric M, Hanson LA, Olcen P (2002). "Long term enhancement of the IgG2 antibody response to Haemophilus influenzae type b by breast-feeding". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 21 (9): 816-21. doi:10.1097/01.inf.0000027668.74570.96. PMID 12352801. 
  36. ^ a b Hylander MA, Strobino DM, Dhanireddy R (1998). "Human milk feedings and infection among very low birth weight infants". Pediatrics 102 (3): E38. doi:10.1542/peds.102.3.e38. PMID 9724686. 
  37. ^ McGuire W, Anthony MY (2003). "Donor human milk versus formula for preventing necrotising enterocolitis in preterm infants: systematic review". Arch. Dis. Child. Fetal Neonatal Ed. 88 (1): F11-4. doi:10.1136/fn.88.1.F11. PMID 12496220. 
  38. ^ Lucas A, Cole TJ (1990). "Breast milk and neonatal necrotising enterocolitis". Lancet 336 (8730): 1519-23. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(90)93304-8. PMID 1979363. 
  39. ^ Duncan B, Ey J, Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD, Taussig LM (1993). "Exclusive breast-feeding for at least 4 months protects against otitis media". Pediatrics 91 (5): 867-72. PMID 8474804. 
  40. ^ Levine OS, Farley M, Harrison LH, Lefkowitz L, McGeer A, Schwartz B (1999). "Risk factors for invasive pneumococcal disease in children: a population-based case-control study in North America". Pediatrics 103 (3): E28. doi:10.1542/peds.103.3.e28. PMID 10049984. 
  41. ^ Bachrach VR, Schwarz E, Bachrach LR (2003). "Breastfeeding and the risk of hospitalization for respiratory disease in infancy: a meta-analysis". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 157 (3): 237-43. PMID 12622672. 
  42. ^ Holberg CJ, Wright AL, Martinez FD, Ray CG, Taussig LM, Lebowitz MD (1991). "Risk factors for respiratory syncytial virus-associated lower respiratory illnesses in the first year of life". Am. J. Epidemiol. 133 (11): 1135-51. PMID 2035517. 
  43. ^ Rowe SY, Rocourt JR, Shiferaw B, et al (2004). "Breast-feeding decreases the risk of sporadic salmonellosis among infants in FoodNet sites". Clin. Infect. Dis. 38 Suppl 3: S262-70. doi:10.1086/381595. PMID 15095198. 
  44. ^ Pisacane A, Graziano L, Mazzarella G, Scarpellino B, Zona G (1992). "Breast-feeding and urinary tract infection". J. Pediatr. 120 (1): 87-9. PMID 1731031. 
  45. ^ Assis AM, Gaudenzi EN, Gomes G, Ribeiro Rde C, Szarfarc SC, Souza SB (2004). "[Hemoglobin concentration, breastfeeding and complementary feeding in the first year of life]" (in Portuguese). Rev Saude Publica 38 (4): 543-51. doi:/S0034-89102004000400010. PMID 15311295. 
  46. ^ Thorsdottir I, Gunnarsson BS, Atladottir H, Michaelsen KF, Palsson G (2003). "Iron status at 12 months of age -- effects of body size, growth and diet in a population with high birth weight". Eur J Clin Nutr 57 (4): 505-13. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601594. PMID 12700611. 
  47. ^ Fort P, Moses N, Fasano M, Goldberg T, Lifshitz F (1990). "Breast and soy-formula feedings in early infancy and the prevalence of autoimmune thyroid disease in children". J Am Coll Nutr 9 (2): 164-7. PMID 2338464. 
  48. ^ Andiran F, Dayi S, Mete E (2003). "Cows milk consumption in constipation and anal fissure in infants and young children". J Paediatr Child Health 39 (5): 329-31. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1754.2003.00152.x. PMID 12887660. 
  49. ^ Mori M, Davies TW, Tsukamoto T, Kumamoto Y, Fukuda K (1992). "Maternal and other factors of cryptorchidism--a case-control study in Japan". Kurume Med J 39 (2): 53-60. PMID 1357225. 
  50. ^ Benhamou PH, Francoual C, Glangeaud MC, Barette A, Dupont C, Bréart G (2000). "Risk factors for severe esophageal and gastric lesions in term neonates: a case-control study. Groupe Francophone d'Hépato-Gastroentérologie et Nutrition Pédiatrique". J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 31 (4): 377-80. PMID 11045833. 
  51. ^ Heacock HJ, Jeffery HE, Baker JL, Page M (1992). "Influence of breast versus formula milk on physiological gastroesophageal reflux in healthy, newborn infants". J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 14 (1): 41-6. PMID 1573512. 
  52. ^ Pisacane A, de Luca U, Vaccaro F, Valiante A, Impagliazzo N, Caracciolo G (1995). "Breast-feeding and inguinal hernia". J. Pediatr. 127 (1): 109-11. PMID 7608794. 
  53. ^ Lauer JA, Betrán AP, Barros AJ, de Onís M (2006). "Deaths and years of life lost due to suboptimal breast-feeding among children in the developing world: a global ecological risk assessment". Public Health Nutr 9 (6): 673-85. PMID 16925871. 
  54. ^ Edmond KM, Zandoh C, Quigley MA, Amenga-Etego S, Owusu-Agyei S, Kirkwood BR (2006). "Delayed breastfeeding initiation increases risk of neonatal mortality". Pediatrics 117 (3): e380-6. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-1496. PMID 16510618. 
  55. ^ Bahl R, Frost C, Kirkwood BR, et al (2005). "Infant feeding patterns and risks of death and hospitalization in the first half of infancy: multicentre cohort study". Bull. World Health Organ. 83 (6): 418-26. doi:/S0042-96862005000600009. PMID 15976892. 
  56. ^ Chen A, Rogan WJ (2004). "Breastfeeding and the risk of postneonatal death in the United States". Pediatrics 113 (5): e435-9. doi:10.1542/peds.113.5.e435. PMID 15121986. 
  57. ^ Beaudry M, Dufour R, Marcoux S (1995). "Relation between infant feeding and infections during the first six months of life". J. Pediatr. 126 (2): 191-7. PMID 7844664. 
  58. ^ van den Bogaard C, van den Hoogen HJ, Huygen FJ, van Weel C (1991). "The relationship between breast-feeding and early childhood morbidity in a general population". Fam Med 23 (7): 510-5. PMID 1936731. 
  59. ^ Pisacane A, de Luca U, Criscuolo L, et al (1996). "Breast feeding and hypertrophic pyloric stenosis: population based case-control study". BMJ 312 (7033): 745-6. PMID 8605461. 
  60. ^ Hauck FR, Herman SM, Donovan M, et al (2003). "Sleep environment and the risk of sudden infant death syndrome in an urban population: the Chicago Infant Mortality Study". Pediatrics 111 (5 Part 2): 1207-14. PMID 12728140. 
  61. ^ Alm B, Wennergren G, Norvenius SG, et al (2002). "Breast feeding and the sudden infant death syndrome in Scandinavia, 1992-95". Arch. Dis. Child. 86 (6): 400-2. doi:10.1136/adc.86.6.400. PMID 12023166. 
  62. ^ McVea KL, Turner PD, Peppler DK (2000). "The role of breastfeeding in sudden infant death syndrome". J Hum Lact 16 (1): 13-20. doi:10.1177/089033440001600104. PMID 11138219. 
  63. ^ "Results from the First Year of The New Zealand Count Death Study." (1991). New Zealand Medical Association 104: 71-76. 
  64. ^ Baker D, Taylor H, Henderson J (1998). "Inequality in infant morbidity: causes and consequences in England in the 1990s. ALSPAC Study Team. Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood". J Epidemiol Community Health 52 (7): 451-8. PMID 9799880. 
  65. ^ Burr ML, Limb ES, Maguire MJ, et al (1993). "Infant feeding, wheezing, and allergy: a prospective study". Arch. Dis. Child. 68 (6): 724-8. PMID 8333759. 
  66. ^ Porro E, Indinnimeo L, Antognoni G, Midulla F, Criscione S (1993). "Early wheezing and breast feeding". J Asthma 30 (1): 23-8. doi:10.3109/02770909309066376. PMID 8428854. 
  67. ^ van Odijk J, Kull I, Borres MP, et al (2003). "Breastfeeding and allergic disease: a multidisciplinary review of the literature (1966-2001) on the mode of early feeding in infancy and its impact on later atopic manifestations". Allergy 58 (9): 833-43. PMID 12911410. 
  68. ^ Oddy WH, Holt PG, Sly PD, et al (1999). "Association between breast feeding and asthma in 6 year old children: findings of a prospective birth cohort study". BMJ 319 (7213): 815-9. PMID 10496824. 
  69. ^ Dell S, To T (2001). "Breastfeeding and asthma in young children: findings from a population-based study". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 155 (11): 1261-5. PMID 11695937. 
  70. ^ Gdalevich M, Mimouni D, David M, Mimouni M (2001). "Breast-feeding and the onset of atopic dermatitis in childhood: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies". J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 45 (4): 520-7. doi:10.1067/mjd.2001.114741. PMID 11568741. 
  71. ^ Mortensen EL, Michaelsen KF, Sanders SA, Reinisch JM (2002). "The association between duration of breastfeeding and adult intelligence". JAMA 287 (18): 2365-71. doi:10.1001/jama.287.18.2365. PMID 11988057. 
  72. ^ Lucas A, Morley R, Cole TJ, Lister G, Leeson-Payne C (1992). "Breast milk and subsequent intelligence quotient in children born preterm". Lancet 339 (8788): 261-4. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(92)91329-7. PMID 1346280. 
  73. ^ Singhal A, Morley R, Cole TJ, et al (2007). "Infant nutrition and stereoacuity at age 4-6 y". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 85 (1): 152-9. PMID 17209191. 
  74. ^ Dee DL, Li R, Lee LC, Grummer-Strawn LM (2007). "Associations between breastfeeding practices and young children's language and motor skill development". Pediatrics 119 Suppl 1: S92-8. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-2089N. PMID 17272591. 
  75. ^ Vestergaard M, Obel C, Henriksen TB, Sørensen HT, Skajaa E, Ostergaard J (1999). "Duration of breastfeeding and developmental milestones during the latter half of infancy". Acta Paediatr. 88 (12): 1327-32. doi:10.1080/080352599750030022. PMID 10626516. 
  76. ^ Pisacane A, de Luca U, Impagliazzo N, Russo M, De Caprio C, Caracciolo G (1995). "Breast feeding and acute appendicitis". BMJ 310 (6983): 836-7. PMID 7711621. 
  77. ^ Jones G, Riley M, Dwyer T (2000). "Breastfeeding in early life and bone mass in prepubertal children: a longitudinal study". Osteoporos Int 11 (2): 146-52. PMID 10793873. 
  78. ^ "In-utero and early life exposures in relation to risk of breast cancer." (1999). Cancer Causes And Control 10(6): 561-573. 
  79. ^ "Exposure to breast milk in infancy and the risk of breast cancer." (1994). Epidemiology 5: 324-331. 
  80. ^ "Infant Feeding and Childhood Cancer." (1988). Lancet 13;2(8607): 365-8. 
  81. ^ "Review of the evidence for an association between infant feeding and childhood cancer." (1998). International Journal of Cancer - Supplement 11: 29-33. 
  82. ^ "Breastfeeding and the risk of childhood leukemia: A meta-analysis." (November-December 2004). Public Health Reports 119(6): 521-535. 
  83. ^ "Breast-feeding and risk of childhood acute leukemia." (October 1999). Journal of the National Cancer Institute 91(20): 1765-72. 
  84. ^ Martin RM, Gunnell D, Smith GD (2005). "Breastfeeding in infancy and blood pressure in later life: systematic review and meta-analysis". Am. J. Epidemiol. 161 (1): 15-26. doi:10.1093/aje/kwh338. PMID 15615909. 
  85. ^ "Infant feeding and blood cholesterol: A study in adolescents and a systematic review." (September 2002). Pediatrics 110(3): 597-608. 
  86. ^ "The effect of breastfeeding on cardiorespiratory risk factors in adult life." (May 2007). Pediatrics 119(5): e1107-15. 
  87. ^ "Breast-feeding protects against celiac disease." (May 2002). American Journal Of Clinical Nutrition 75(5): 914-921. 
  88. ^ "A case-control study of the effect of infant feeding on celiac disease." (Jul-Aug 2001). Annals Of Nutrition And Metabolism 45(4): 135-142. 
  89. ^ "Longer breastfeeding is an independent protective factor against development of type 1 diabetes mellitus in childhood." (March-April 2004). Diabetes Metabolism Research and Reviews 20(2): 150-157. 
  90. ^ "Type 2 diabetes mellitus in children - Prenatal and early infancy risk factors among native Canadians." (July 2002). Archives Of Pediatrics And Adolescent Medicine 156(7): 651-655. 
  91. ^ "Protective effect of breastfeeding: an ecologic study of Haemophilus influenzae meningitis and breastfeeding in a Swedish population." (February 1999). International Journal of Epidemiology 28(1): 152-6. 
  92. ^ "Infant feeding practices and ulcerative colitis in childhood." (June 1991). British Medical Journal 302(6792): 1580-1. 
  93. ^ "Role of Infant Feeding Practices in Development of Crohn's Disease in Childhood" (June 1989). British Medical Journal 298(6688): 1617-8. 
  94. ^ "Breast feeding and the development of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis." (June 1995). Journal of Rheumatology 22(6): 1166-70. 
  95. ^ "Breast feeding and multiple sclerosis." (May 1994). British Medical Journal 308(6941): 1411-2. 
  96. ^ "Duration of breastfeeding and risk of overweight in childhood: a prospective birth cohort study from Germany." (August 2006). International Journal of Obesity 30(8): 1281-7. 
  97. ^ "Effect of infant feeding on the risk of obesity across the life course: A quantitative review of published evidence." (2005). Pediatrics 115(5): 1367-77. 
  98. ^ "The effect of breast-feeding with and without formula use on the risk of obesity at 4 years of age." (September 2004). Obesity Resolution 12(9): 1527-35. 
  99. ^ "Breastfeeding and lowering the risk of childhood obesity." (June 2002). Lancet 359(9322): 2003-2004. 
  100. ^ "Breastfeeding and risk of schizophrenia in the Copenhagen Perinatal Cohort." (July 2005). Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 112(1): 26-9. 
  101. ^ "Breast feeding and tonsillectomy." (March 1996). British Medical Journal 312(7033): 746-7. 
  102. ^ a b c Lawrence RM, Lawrence RA (2004). "Breast milk and infection". Clin Perinatol 31 (3): 501-28. doi:10.1016/j.clp.2004.03.019. PMID 15325535. 
  103. ^ a b c d e Lamounier JA, Moulin ZS, Xavier CC (2004). "[Recommendations for breastfeeding during maternal infections]" (in Portuguese). J Pediatr (Rio J) 80 (5 Suppl): S181-8. PMID 15583769. 
  104. ^ Schleiss MR (2006). "Acquisition of human cytomegalovirus infection in infants via breast milk: natural immunization or cause for concern?". Rev. Med. Virol. 16 (2): 73-82. doi:10.1002/rmv.484. PMID 16287195. 
  105. ^ Przyrembel H, Heinrich-Hirsch B, Vieth B (2000). "Exposition to and health effects of residues in human milk.". Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 478: 307-25. PMID 11065082. 
  106. ^ Mamiro PS, Kolsteren P, Roberfroid D, Tatala S, Opsomer AS, Van Camp JH (2005). "Feeding practices and factors contributing to wasting, stunting, and iron-deficiency anaemia among 3-23-month old children in Kilosa district, rural Tanzania.". J Health Popul Nutr 23 (3): 222-30. PMID 16262018. 

[edit] External links


aa - ab - af - ak - als - am - an - ang - ar - arc - as - ast - av - ay - az - ba - bar - bat_smg - bcl - be - be_x_old - bg - bh - bi - bm - bn - bo - bpy - br - bs - bug - bxr - ca - cbk_zam - cdo - ce - ceb - ch - cho - chr - chy - co - cr - crh - cs - csb - cu - cv - cy - da - de - diq - dsb - dv - dz - ee - el - eml - en - eo - es - et - eu - ext - fa - ff - fi - fiu_vro - fj - fo - fr - frp - fur - fy - ga - gan - gd - gl - glk - gn - got - gu - gv - ha - hak - haw - he - hi - hif - ho - hr - hsb - ht - hu - hy - hz - ia - id - ie - ig - ii - ik - ilo - io - is - it - iu - ja - jbo - jv - ka - kaa - kab - kg - ki - kj - kk - kl - km - kn - ko - kr - ks - ksh - ku - kv - kw - ky - la - lad - lb - lbe - lg - li - lij - lmo - ln - lo - lt - lv - map_bms - mdf - mg - mh - mi - mk - ml - mn - mo - mr - mt - mus - my - myv - mzn - na - nah - nap - nds - nds_nl - ne - new - ng - nl - nn - no - nov - nrm - nv - ny - oc - om - or - os - pa - pag - pam - pap - pdc - pi - pih - pl - pms - ps - pt - qu - quality - rm - rmy - rn - ro - roa_rup - roa_tara - ru - rw - sa - sah - sc - scn - sco - sd - se - sg - sh - si - simple - sk - sl - sm - sn - so - sr - srn - ss - st - stq - su - sv - sw - szl - ta - te - tet - tg - th - ti - tk - tl - tlh - tn - to - tpi - tr - ts - tt - tum - tw - ty - udm - ug - uk - ur - uz - ve - vec - vi - vls - vo - wa - war - wo - wuu - xal - xh - yi - yo - za - zea - zh - zh_classical - zh_min_nan - zh_yue - zu -