First Partition of Poland
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The First Partition of Poland or First Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in 1772 as the first of three partitions that ended the existence of the Polish-Lithuanian state by 1795. The first partition was carried out by the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire and was ratified by the Polish parliament (Sejm) in 1773 (see the Partition Sejm).
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[edit] Background
In the late 17th century and early 18th century the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth has been reduced from the status of the major European power to that of a Russian protectorate (or a vassal, or a satellite state, with Russian tsar effectively choosing Polish-Lithuanian monarchs and deciding the outcome of much of Poland's internal politics; see for example the Repnin Sejm).[1][2]
The First Partition occurred after the balance of power in Europe shifted, with Russian victories against the Ottomans in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) strengthening Russia and endangering Habsburg interests in that region (particularly in Moldavia and Wallachia). Hence Habsburg Austria started to consider waging a war against Russia.[3] France, friendly towards both Russia and Austria, suggested a series of territorial adjustments, in which Austria would be compensated by the parts of Prussian Silesia, and Prussia in turn would receive Polish Ermland (Warmia), Masuria and parts of Courland. Frederick II the Great of Prussia, however, had no intention of giving up Silesia; he was however also interested in finding a peaceful solution - his alliance with Russia would drew him into the war with Austria, and the Seven Years' War has left Prussia's treasury and army weakened. He was also interested in protecting the weakening Ottoman Empire (which could be advantageously utilized in the event of a Prussian war either with Russia or Austria). In order to reduce the tensions in the Austrian relations with Russia Frederick proposed a new series of territorial adjustments, one in which Prussia would not have to sacrifice any of her territories - instead, one in which Prussia, Austria and Russia would be receive parts of Poland (with the largest share going to the party most weakened by the recent changes in balance of power, Austria). Thus Frederic attempted to encourage Russia to direct its expansion towards weak and non-functional Poland instead of the Ottomans.[3]
Although for a few decades (since the times of the Silent Sejm) Russia has seen the weak Poland as its own protectorate,[1] Poland has been also devastated by a civil war (with the forces of the Bar Confederation attempting to disrupt Russian control over Poland).[3] Further, Russian supported leader, king Stanisław Poniatowski of Poland, has been seen as both weak and too independent minded; eventually the Russian court has decided that the usefulness of Poland as a protectorate has diminished.[4] Under pressure from Prussia, which for a long time wanted to annex Polish northern province of Royal Prussia, and in light of the possible Austrian-Ottoman alliance[5] with only token objections from Austria[4] (which would have instead preferred to receive more Ottoman territories in the Balkans - a region which for a long time was coveted by the Habsburgs), the three powers have agreed on the First Partition of Poland. The Russians have also withdrawn from Moldavia[when?] away from the Austrian border.
[edit] Partition begins
Already in the years 1770-1771, both Austria and Prussia have taken over some border territories of the Commonwealth (Austria took Spiš region, and Prussia, some border regions in Pomerania).[4] On February 19, 1772, the agreement of partition was signed in Vienna.[5] A previous agreement between Prussia and Russia had been made in St. Petersburg on February 6, 1772.[5] Early in August the Russian, Prussian and Austrian troops simultaneously entered the Commonwealth and occupied the provinces agreed upon among themselves. On August 5, 1772, the three parties signed the treaty on their respective territorial gains on the Commonwealth's expence.[3]
The regiments of the Bar Confederation, whose executive board had been forced to leave Austria (which previously supported them[5]) after that country joined the Prusso-Russian alliance, did not lay down their arms. Many fortress in their command held out as long as possible; Wawel Castle in Kraków fell only at the end of April[5][6]); Tyniec fortress held until the end of July 1772;[7] Częstochowa (commanded by Kazimierz Pułaski) held until late August.[5][8] In the end, the Bar Conferation has been defeated, its members either fled abroad, or were deported to Siberia by the Russians.[9]
[edit] Division of territories
The partition treaty was ratified by its signatories on September 22, 1772.[5] It was a major success for Frederick II of Prussia:[5][8] Prussia's shares might have been the smallest, but it was also significantly developed and strategically important.[4] Prussia took most of the Polish Royal Prussia that stood between its possessions in Kingdom of Prussia and Margraviate of Brandenburg. Prussia acquired Ermland (Warmia), Royal Prussia without the city of Danzig (Gdańsk), northern areas of Greater Poland along the Noteć River (the Netze District), and parts of Kuyavia (excluding the city of Thorn (Toruń)).[3] Those territories in 1773 became a new province called West Prussia. Frederick II making token gestures for the welfare of his new Polish subjects, importing large numbers of Catholic schoolteachers (especially Jesuits whose order was suppressed at about that time) and making it mandatory for Prussian crown princes to learn Polish;[citation needed] in fact the suppression of Polish culture and the Germanisation of Poles during Partitions was just beginning. By seizing northwestern Poland, Prussia instantly cut off Poland from the sea, and gained control over 80% of the Commonwealth's total foreign trade. Through levying enormous custom duties, Prussia accelerated the inevitable collapse of the Commonwealth.[4]
Despite token criticism of the partition from Austrian Empress Maria Theresa,[4][10][11] Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton Graf Kaunitz considered Austrian share an ample compensation: despite Austria being the least interested in the partition, it received the largest share of formerly Poland's land and population. To Austria fell Zator and Auschwitz (Oświęcim), part of Little Poland embracing parts of the counties of Kraków and Sandomierz (with the rich salt mines of Bochnia and Wieliczka) and the whole of Galicia, less the City of Kraków.[3]
Russia received the largest but least-important area economically, in the northeast.[4] By this "diplomatic document" Russia came into possession of the Commonwealth territories east of the line formed roughly by the Dvina, Drut, and Dnieper rivers - that section of Livonia which had still remained in Commonwealth control, and of Belarus embracing the counties of Vitebsk, Polotsk and Mstislavl.[3]
By this partition the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lost about 30% of its territory, amounting at that time to about 484,000 square miles (1,250,000 km²), with a population of four million people (close to half of the country population before the partitions).[3]
[edit] Aftermath
After having occupied their respective territories, the three partitioning powers demanded that King Stanisław and the Sejm approve their action.[5] The King appealed to the nations of Western Europe for help and tarried with the convocation of the Sejm.[5] The European powers reacted to the partition with utmost indifference, only a few voices - like that of Edmund Burke - were raised in objection.[3][5] When no help was forthcoming and the armies of the combined nations occupied Warsaw to compel by force of arms the calling of the assembly, no alternative could be chosen save passive submission to their will. Those of the senators who advised against this step were threatened by the Russians (represented by the ambassador, Otto von Stackelberg) who declared that in the face of refusal the whole capital of Warsaw will be destroyed by them, other threats included executions, confiscation of estates, and increase of partitioned territory[12] and some were even arrested by the Russians and exiled to Siberia.[5][unreliable source?] The local land assemblies (Sejmiks) refused to elect Deputies to the Sejm, and after great difficulties less than half of the regular number of representatives came to attend the session led by Marshals of the Sejm, Michał Hieronim Radziwiłł and Adam Poniński (Poniński in particular was one of many Polish nobles bribed by the Russians, and following their orders).[13][5] This sejm became known as the Partition Sejm. In order to prevent the disruption of the Sejm via liberum veto and the defeat of the purpose of the invaders he undertook to turn the regular Sejm into a confederated sejm, where majority rule prevailed.[5] In spite of the efforts of individuals like Tadeusz Rejtan, Samuel Korsak and Stanisław Bohuszewicz to prevent it, the deed was accomplished with the aid of Adam Poniński, Michał Hieronim Radziwiłł and the Bishops Andrzej Młodziejowski, Ignacy Jakub Massalski, and Antoni Kazimierz Ostrowski (primate of Poland), who occupied high positions in the Senate of Poland.[5] The Sejm elected a committee of thirty to deal with the various matters presented.[5] On September 18, 1773, the Committee formally signed the treaty of cession, renouncing all claims of the Commonwealth to the lost territories.[5]
[edit] References
- ^ a b Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki, A Concise History of Poland, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0521559170, Google Print, p.84
- ^ Hamish M. Scott, The Emergence of the Eastern Powers, 1756-1775, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 052179269X, Gooble Print, p.181-182
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Poland, Partitions of. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 28, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9060581
- ^ a b c d e f g Poland. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 5, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-28200 . Section: History > The Commonwealth > Reforms, agony, and partitions > The First Partition
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Edward Henry Lewinski Corwin, The Political History of Poland, 1917, p. 310-315 (Google Print - public domain - full text online)
- ^ (Polish) Halina Nehring Kartki z kalendarza: kwiecień
- ^ (Polish) Tyniec jako twierdza Konfederatów Barskich
- ^ a b Norman Davies, God's Playground: A History of Poland in Two Volumes, Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0199253390, Google Print, p.392
- ^ Norman Davies, Europe: A History, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0198201710, Google Print, p.664
- ^ Frederick II of Prussia wrote about the participation of the (catholic) empress Maria Theresa in the first division of Poland in a letter: "The Empress Catherine and I are simple robbers. I just would like to know how the empress calmed down her father confessor? She cried, when she took; the more she cried, the more she took!?" Davies, p.390
- ^ Sharon Korman, The right of conquest: the acquisition of territory by force in international law and practice, Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0198280076, Google Print, p.74
- ^ Historia Encyklopedia Szkolna Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne Warszawa 1993 page 525"Opponents were threatened with executions, increase of partitioned territories, and destruction of the capital"
- ^ Jerzy Jan Lerski, Piotr Wróbel, Richard J. Kozicki, Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966-1945, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996, ISBN 0313260079, Google Print, p.466
[edit] Further reading
- Herbert H. Kaplan, The First Partition of Poland, Ams Pr Inc (June 1972), ISBN 0404036368
- Tadeusz Cegielski, Łukasz Kądziela, Rozbiory Polski 1772-1793-1795, Warszawa 1990
- Władysław Konopczyński Dzieje Polski nowożytnej, t. 2, Warszawa 1986
- Tomasz Paluszyński, Czy Rosja uczestniczyła w pierwszym rozbiorze Polski czyli co zaborcy zabrali Polsce w trzech rozbiorach. Nowe określenie obszarów rozbiorowych Polski w kontekście analizy przynależności i tożsamości państwowej Księstw Inflanckiego i Kurlandzkiego, prawnopaństwowego stosunku Polski i Litwy oraz podmiotowości Rzeczypospolitej, Poznań 2006.
- S. Salmonowicz, Fryderyk Wielki, Wrocław 2006
- Maria Wawrykowa, Dzieje Niemiec 1648-1789, Warszawa 1976
[edit] External links
- James Fletcher First Partition Of Poland
- D. B. Horn, review of The First Partition of Poland by Herbert H. Kaplan, The English Historical Review, Vol. 79, No. 313 (Oct., 1964), pp. 863-864 (review consists of 2 pages), JSTOR
- O. Halecki, Reviewed work(s): British Public Opinion and the First Partition of Poland. by D. B. Horn, American Slavic and East European Review, Vol. 4, No. 3/4 (Dec., 1945), pp. 205-207 JSTOR
- J. T. Lukowski, Guarantee or Annexation: a Note on Russian Plans to acquire Polish Territory prior to the First Partition of Poland, Historical Research, Vol. 56 Issue 133 Page 60 May 1983, [1]
- The Three Partitions, 1764-95: First Partition, Library of Congress Country Study
- The Period of Partitions (1772-1918) - resources
- (Polish) Photos of some contemporary documents
- (Polish) Polish-Russian and Polish-Austrian treaties of the First Partition
- Map of the 1st Partition
