Christianity and Paganism
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This article gives overview about the relations between Christians and Pagans.
Early Christianity developed in an era of the Roman Empire during which many religions were practiced, that are, due to the lack of a better term, labelled Paganism. The Latin Paganus, similar to the Germanic Heathen, originally simply referred to someone living an a rural area. It obtained its current meaning since the countryside was christianized later then the cities. In a broader sense the term "Pagan" may refer to any adherent of a non-Abrahamic religion, but it is used here within the scope of those religions that Christianity encountered during the Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.
Since the later 20th century, "Pagan" or "Paganism" has become widely used as a self-designation by adherents of Neopaganism.[1] This has lead to a revived interest in the Historical Polytheism (such as Celtic polytheism and Norse paganism), with the relations between Christians and Pagans often being particularly in focus.
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[edit] Pagan influences on Christianity
The intermingling and interaction of peoples and cultures facilitated by the Pax Romana resulted in the competition and cross-fertilization of religions.
It has been proposed that Christianity either evolved from or was strongly influenced by one or more of the non-Judaic religions of the time. Although these theories are not generally accepted by mainstream academic communities and religious institutions, they have garnered and continue to enjoy support from a minority of scholars.
Three layers of pagan influence on the Christian Church have been proposed:
- Influence on the New Testament narrative and doctrine itself. This is mainly located in Hellenistic mystery religions such as Mithraism, partly inspired by Ancient Egyptian religion, as well as the mythology of the Old Testament, but Buddhism is also named as a possible influence;
- influence on Christian dogma in Late Antiquity, that is, the doctrine of the Church Fathers in the 4th and 5th century, the Nicene and Chalcedonian creeds, including the questions of the Trinity and Christology. A strong influence here was Roman imperial cult, Hellenistic philosophy, notably Neoplatonism, and Gnosticism. Christological disputes continued to dominate Christian theology well into the Early Middle Ages, down to the Third Council of Constantinople of AD 680;
- influences of pagan religions Christianized in the Early Middle Ages. This includes Germanic paganism, Celtic paganism, Slavic paganism and folk religion in general.
According to this theory, Christianity was both greatly influenced by, and exerted influence on, non-Christian (pagan) cults and mythologies.
One theory suggests that Christianity developed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries leading an underground existence as an illicit mystery religion. According to this theory, it underwent a syncretism with the Roman imperial cult and Hellenistic philosophy in the 4th century; this syncretic process completed by AD 391 with the ban on pagan cults by Theodosius I.
In the course of the Christianisation of Europe in the Early Middle Ages, the Church adopted many elements of national cult and folk religion, resulting in national Churches like Latin, Germanic, Russian, Armenian and so on.
One goal of the Reformation was to return the Church to the state of Early Christianity, discarding such flavours, and Restorationists like Jehovah's Witnesses continue to argue that "mainstream Christianity" has departed from "original" Christianity due, in part, to such pagan influences.
[edit] Influence on New Testament narrative
Assertions of pagan influences on Christianity have been made since the beginning of the Christian era. Justin Martyr made the following defense against the assertion that Jesus Christ was modeled after the Greek god, Dionysus.
Be well assured, then, Trypho, that I am established in the knowledge of and faith in the Scriptures by those counterfeits which he who is called the devil is said to have performed among the Greeks; just as some were wrought by the Magi in Egypt, and others by the false prophets in Elijah's days. For when they tell that Bacchus, son of Jupiter, was begotten by intercourse with Semele, and that he was the discoverer of the vine; and when they relate, that being torn in pieces, and having died, he rose again, and ascended to heaven; and when they introduce wine into his mysteries, do I not perceive that the devil has imitated the prophecy announced by the patriarch Jacob, and recorded by Moses? [2]
[edit] Influence on early Christian theology
There was a complex interaction between Hellenic philosophy and Christianity during the early years of the church, particularly the first four centuries A.D.
Christianity originated in the Roman province of Judah, an Aramaic culture with traditional philosophies and modes of thought distinct from the Classical Greek thought which was dominant in the Roman Empire at the time of Christ and centuries following. However, Judah itself was already Hellenized in the first century, and the "Hebrew Bible" most commonly used was the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the original Hebrew scriptures.
The conflict between the two modes of thought is recorded in scripture, in Paul's encounters with Epicurian and Stoic philosophers in Acts [1], his diatribe against Greek philosophy in 1st Corinthians[2], and his warning against philosophy in Colossians 2:8[3].
Over time, however, as Christianity spread throughout the Hellenic world, an increasing number of church leaders were educated in Greek philosophy, leading to a fusion of the two modes of thought.
One early Christian writer of the second and early third century, Clement of Alexandria, demonstrated the assimilation of Greek thought in writing: "Philosophy has been given to the Greeks as their own kind of Covenant, their foundation for the philosophy of Christ ... the philosophy of the Greeks ... contains the basic elements of that genuine and perfect knowledge which is higher than human ... even upon those spiritual objects." [3]
Augustine of Hippo, who ultimately systematized Christian philosophy, wrote in the 4th and early fifth century: "But when I read those books of the Platonists I was taught by them to seek incorporeal truth, so I saw your 'invisible things, understood by the things that are made' [4].
When Christians first encountered Manichaeism, it seemed to them to be a heresy, as it had originated in a heavily Gnostic area of the Persian empire. Augustine of Hippo (354-430) converted to Christianity from Manichaeism. Until the 20th century, most of the Western world's concept of Manichaeism came through Augustine's negative polemics against it. According to his Confessions of St. Augustine, after eight or nine years of adhering to the Manichaean faith (as a member of the Manichaean group of "hearers"), he became a Christian and a potent adversary of Manichaeism. It is speculated by some modern scholars (Alfred Adam, for example), that Manichaean ways of thinking had an influence on the development of some of Augustine's Christian ideas, such as the nature of good and evil, the idea of hell, the separation of groups into elect, hearers, and sinners, the hostility to the flesh and sexual activity, and so on.
How much long-term influence the Manichaeans actually had on Christianity is still being debated. It has been suggested that the Bogomils, Paulicians, and the Cathars were deeply influenced by Manichaeism. However, the Bogomils and Cathars, in particular, left few records of their rituals or doctrines, and the link between them and Manichaeans is tenuous. Regardless of its historical accuracy the charge of Manichaeism was levelled at them by contemporary orthodox opponents, who often tried to fit contemporary heresies with those combatted by the church fathers. The Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathars were certainly dualists and felt that the world was the work of a demiurge of Satanic origin (Cross), but whether this was due to influence from Manichaeism or another strand of Gnosticism is impossible to determine. Only a minority of Cathars held that the evil god (or principle) was as powerful as the good god (also called a principle) as Mani did, a belief also known as absolute dualism. In the case of the Cathars, it seems they adopted the Manichaean principles of church organization, but none of its religious cosmology. Priscillian and his followers apparently tried to absorb what they thought was the valuable part of Manichaeaism into Christianity.
[edit] Influence on Christian liturgy and ritual
- Further information: Christianised rituals
Lisa Ann Bargeman asserts that many Christian rituals and beliefs, particularly Roman Catholic ones, may have been borrowed from ancient Egyptian traditions. She compares the Bible with the Egyptian sacred text, The Book of the Dead; she further cites similarities between specific themes and ceremonial practices to argue that Christianity directly evolved from the beliefs of the Egyptians.[5]
Others believe that the relationship was more indirect, passing through Hellenic and Roman adaptations of the Egyptian traditions. For example, the cult of Isis was popular in the Roman Empire in the form of a Hellenized adaption of Egyptian ritual. This cult believed that Isis gave virgin birth to Horus (she was often portrayed suckling the infant Horus). It also believed in the resurrection of Osiris, who thereupon became the Judge of sinners. The use of holy water, in turn, was similar to the water from the Nile that was kept in a cistern as a protection against evil.[6]
It has been suggested that Christianity originated as a mystery religion, a secret cult of initiates. According to this view, Christianity began as a Jewish adaptation of Greek mystery religion, and that Paul developed Christianity in another, more public, Hellenized direction, ultimately more acceptable to mainstream Roman culture.
...knowledge of the Mystery religions is important for any serious study of the history of Christianity. It is well-nigh impossible to grasp Christianity through and through without knowledge of these cults. It must be remembered, as implied above, that Christianity was not a sudden and miraculous transformation, springing, forth full grown as Athene sprang from the head of Zeus, but it is a composite of slow and laborious growth.
Mithraism is most famous because of suggestions that it was a rival of or resembled early Christianity.
There is much debate on whether Christianity is a re-branded version of many Mithraic beliefs. Ernest Renan, in The Origins of Christianity, promoted the idea that Mithraism was the prime competitor to Christianity in the second through the fourth centuries, although some scholars feel the written claims that the emperors Nero, Commodus, Septimius Severus, Caracalla, and the Tetrarchs were initiates are dubious as there is little evidence that Mithraic worship was accorded official status as a Roman cult.
A better determinant of borrowing, is to compare core doctrines between Christianity and Mithraism. The adoption of imagery or icons or festivals is fairly peripheral (such as the adoption by Christendom of winter solstice or Saturnalia festivals as Christmas) but seldom reflects basic religious tenets. A further example of this is the various Gnostic cults (such as the Marcionites and Valentinians) which adopted the personage of Jesus or the concept of a Savior, yet did not adopt the underlying doctrinal elements.
The similarities (particularly the iconographical ones) that occur between Christianity and Mithraism are due to a number of different factors. Perhaps the best examination of the complexity of trying to identify these factors can be found in the article, “Christ and Mithra”, which was written by Samuel Laeuchli. Laeuchli offers four potential explanations as to the nature of these similarities. Laeuchli writes that it is important to distinguish that the four explanations must be constantly weighed against one another because more than one possible connection could be involved. It is therefore impossible to consider any of the following ideas as being one more ‘correct’ than another. However, each of the following explanation is valid reasons and suggests that any one or more of these factors could lead to the similarities between Mithraism and Christianity. Something else that one needs to take into consideration is the fact that there is a lack of information on Mithraism that scholars could access, compared to what is known about Christianity. It is also important to remember that Mithraism was neither static nor homogeneous. Therefore, Mithraism from the second century is quite different than Mithraism from the third century. Likewise, just as Christianity varied from one region of the Roman Empire to the other, so too did Mithraism. [8]
[edit] Medieval Christian mythology
- Further information: Christian mythology, Germanic Christianity, Folk Catholicism, and Allegory in the Middle Ages
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[edit] Idolatry in Christianity
Idolatry in Christianity is "the worship of a created object either made by human hands or created by God"[who?] instead of, or in addition to, the worship due only to the true God.
[edit] Veneration
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- See also: Patron saint, Intercession of saints, Saint symbology, All Saints, and All Souls' Day
[edit] Christmas
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- See also: Father Christmas, Yule, and Christmas controversy
[edit] Lent and Easter
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[edit] Reliquaries
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- See also: True Cross
[edit] Mystery plays
The passion plays of Christianity had their counterpart in pagan mystery plays, the most famous of which were the Eleusinian mystery cults which originated in Attica.
[edit] Conflicts between Christians and Pagans
[edit] Christians and Pagans in the Roman Empire
When Constantine became the sole Roman Emperor in 323, Christianity became legal by the Edict of Milan. Although Constantine allowed public pagan practices, specific pagan temples were torn down upon his orders, while in other cases temple treasures were confiscated [9] After the death of Constantine in 337, two of his sons, Constantius II and Constans took over the leadership of the empire. Constans, ruler of the western provinces, was, like his father, a Christian.
Constans was killed in 350, and soon after his brother became the sole emperor of the entire empire three years later.
But it wasn't just the emperors who persecuted the pagans. Lay Christians took advantage of these new anti-pagan laws by destroying and plundering the temples. Theologians and prominent ecclesiastics soon followed. One such example is St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan. When Gratian became Roman emperor in 375, Ambrose, who was one of his closest educators, persuaded him to further suppress paganism. The emperor, at Ambrose's advice, confiscated the properties of the pagan temples; seized the properties of the vestal virgins and pagan priests, and removed the statue of the Goddess of Victory from the Roman Senate.
When Gratian delegated the government of the eastern half of the Roman Empire to Theodosius the Great in 379, the situation became worse for the pagans. Theodosius prohibited all forms of pagan worship and allowed the temples to be robbed, plundered, and ruthlessly destroyed by monks and other enterprising Christians.
A prominent example of this persecution is the case of the philosopher Hypathia of Alexandria. Hypathia was the daughter of the mathematician Theon. She was one of the most learned individuals of her time. She taught and elucidated Greek mathematics and philosophy. She lectured widely in Athens and Alexandria. But her widespread popularity and intelligence, coupled with her complete lack of interest in Christianity, so irritated the Patriarch of Alexandria, Cyril, that his attacks on her inflamed a mob to murder her in the year 415. The cruelty of the method of her murder can be seen by the description of it by the historian Edward Gibbon:
- "On a fatal day, in the holy season of Lent, Hypathia was torn from her chariot, stripped naked, dragged to the church, and inhumanly butchered by the hands of Peter the Reader and a troop of savage and merciless fanatics; her flesh was scraped from her bones with sharp oyster shells, and her quivering limbs were delivered to the flames. The just progress of inquiry and punishment was stopped by seasonable gifts; but the murder of Hypathia has imprinted an indelible strain on the character and religion of Cyril of Alexandria."
In the year 416, under Theodosius II, a law was passed to bar pagans from public employment. All this was done to coerce pagans to convert to Christianity. Theodosius also persecuted Judaism, destroying a number of synagogues.
With the gradual Christianization of Europe, also the Christian views of marriage replaced precedent, more permissive, 'pagan' views, a process which was not free of confrontation; see: History of Christianity and homosexuality.
[edit] Religious warfare during the Middle Ages
- Further information: Christianization of the Germanic peoples
The Christian mission during the Christianization of Europe was to a large extent peaceful.[10] There were some exceptions, mainly the Saxon wars, the Christianization of Norway and later the Baltic Crusades:
[edit] Saxon Wars
In 782, Charlemagne allegedly had 4,500 Saxons who continued to practice their indigenous Germanic paganism after converting, under duress, to Christianity beheaded at the Massacre of Verden. Alcuin and other theologians at the court of Charlemagne opposed his treatment of the Saxons and insisted in peaceful and voluntary conversion.[11] Mainstraim history describes these events as religious warfare rather than religious persecution.[12] Still, some neopagan authors present them in support of a case for the religious persecution of pagans.[13]
[edit] Norwegian Civil War 995-1030
- Further information: Christianization of Scandinavia
Olaf I of Norway, during his attempt to Christianize Norway during the Viking Age, had those that practiced their indigenous Norse paganism and refused to Christianize under his rule tortured, maimed or executed, including seidmen, who were tied up and thrown to a skerry at ebb to slowly drown. After Olaf I's death, Norway returned to their native paganism. Olaf II of Norway had pagans who refused to convert tortured, blinded or executed and despoiled pagan temples, eventually resulting in at least nominal Christianization of Norway.
[edit] Baltic Crusades
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[edit] Christian positions towards paganism
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- Virtuous pagan
- Mission (Christian)
- Historical persecution by Christians
- Christian views on magic
- Crusades
- European colonization of the Americas
- Christianity and world religions
[edit] See also
Topics of Christianity and Paganism:
- Decline of Hellenistic polytheism
- Neoplatonism and Christianity
- Origins of Christianity
- Constantine I and Christianity
- Germanic Christianity
- Historical persecution by Christians
- Persecution of Christians
- Orthopraxy
- Liturgy
- Sacrifice
- Temple
- The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors
[edit] References
- ^ "A Basic Introduction to Paganism", BBC, retrieved 19 May 2007.
- ^ Justin Martyr http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-dialoguetrypho.html
- ^ Clement of Alexandria. Miscellanies 6. 8
- ^ Augustine of Hippo. Confessions 7. 20
- ^ Bargeman, Lisa. "The Egyptian Origins of Christianity"
- ^ Painter, Douglas. Pagan Influences in Christian Culture: The Hidden Legacy. http://www.litjournal.com/docs/fea_pagan2.html
- ^ Martin Luther King Jr. "The Influence of the Mystery Religions on Christianity" http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/papers/vol1/500215-The_Influence_of_the_Mystery_Religions_on_Christianity.htm
- ^ Laeuchli, Samuel (1967). in Laeuchli, Samuel: “Christ and Mithra”, in Mithraism in Ostia: Mystery Religion and Christianity in the Ancient Port of Rome. Northwestern University Press. pp. 88.
- ^ Eusebius, Vita Const. 3. 54-58
- ^ Padberg, 1998, 183
- ^ Padberg (1998), 97
- ^ Padberg (1998), 94f
- ^ Strmiska, Michael F. [2003]. "The Evils of Christianization: A Pagan Perspective on European History", in Terrie Waddell (editor): Cultural Expressions of Evil and Wickedness: Wrath, Sex, Crime. Editions Rodopi B.V.. ISBN 978-9042010154. “"From the Pagan point of view, we can ask what might have happened if Charlemagne had chosen a different path. What if he had pursued a policy of religious tolerance instead of religious persecution?"”
[edit] Further reading
- Samuel Angus, The Mystery Religions and Christianity, 1966. University Books, New York, NY. 359 pp.
- Edward Carpenter, Pagan and Christian Creeds: Their Origin and Meaning, 1921. Harcourt, Brace & Co., New York, NY. Reprinted by Health Research, Mokelumne Hill, CA., 1975. 319 pp.
- T.W. Doane, Bible Myths and Their Parallels in Other Religions, 1882. Reprinted by Health Research, Mokelumne Hill, CA., 1985. 589 pp.
- John G. Jackson, Christianity Before Christ, 1985. American Atheist Press, Austin, Texas. 237 pp.
- Gordon Laing, The Church Fathers and the Oriental Cults, The Classical Journal (1918).
- Gerald Massey, The Historical Jesus and the Mythical Christ, or Natural Genesis and Typology of Equinoctial Christolatry, 1886. Reprinted by Health Research, Mokelumne Hill, CA. 224 pp.
- Lutz E. von Padberg (1998), Die Christianisierung Europas im Mitterlalter, Reclam (German) (History textbooks on the Christianization of Europe are also easily available in English.)
- J. M. Robertson, Pagan Christs, 1966. Dorset Press, New York, NY. 171 pp.
