Cabin pressurization

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Cabin pressurization is the active pumping of air into an aircraft cabin to increase the air pressure within the cabin. It is required when an aircraft reaches high altitudes, because the natural atmospheric pressure is too low to allow people to absorb sufficient oxygen, leading to altitude sickness and ultimately hypoxia.

[edit] Unpressurized flight

A lack of sufficient oxygen will bring on hypoxia by reducing the alveolar oxygen tension. In some individuals, particularly those with heart or lung disease, symptoms may begin as low as 1500 m (5000 ft) above sea level, although most passengers can tolerate altitudes of 2500 m (8,000 ft) without ill effect. At this altitude, there is about 25% less oxygen than there is at sea level.^[1]

Passengers may also develop fatigue or headaches as the plane flies higher. As the operational altitude increases, reactions become sluggish and unconsciousness will eventually result. Sustained flight operations above 3,000 m (10,000 ft) generally require supplemental oxygen (through a nasal cannula or oxygen mask) or a pressure suit.

[edit] Pressurized flight

Empty water bottle, closed during a commercial transatlantic flight at a cruising altitude of 30,000 ft. Photo taken back on the ground.

Aircraft that routinely fly above 3000 m (10,000 ft) are generally equipped with an oxygen system fed through masks or canulas (typically for smaller aircraft), or are pressurized by an environmental control system (ECS) using air provided by compressors or bleed air. Bleed air extracted from the engines is compressively heated and extracted at approximately 200 °C (392 °F) and then cooled by passing it through a heat exchanger and air cycle machine (commonly referred to by aircrews and mechanics as 'the packs system').Most modern commercial aircraft today have a dual channel electronic controller for maintaining pressurization along with a manual back-up system. These systems maintain air pressure equivalent to 2,500 m (8,000 ft) or below, even during flight at altitudes above 13,000 m (43,000 ft). Aircraft have a positive pressure relief valve in the event of excessive pressure in the cabin. This is to protect the aircraft structure from excessive loading. Normally, the maximum pressure differential between the cabin and the outside air is 7.5–8 psi (52–55 kPa). If the cabin were maintained at sea level pressurization and then flown to 35,000 feet (10.7 km) or more, the pressurization differential would be greater than 9 psi (60 kPa) and the structural life of the airplane would be limited.The traditional method of bleed air extraction from the engine comes at the expense of powerplant efficiency. Some aircraft, such as the Boeing 787, use electric compressors to provide pressurization. This allows greater propulsive efficiency.As the airplane pressurizes and decompresses, some passengers will experience discomfort as trapped gasses within their bodies expand or contract in response to the changing cabin pressure. The most common problems occur with gas trapped in the gastrointestinal tract, the middle ear and the paranasal sinuses. Note that in a pressurized aircraft these effects are not due directly to climb and descent, but to changes in the pressure maintained inside the aircraft. It is always an emergency if a pressurized aircraft suffers a pressurization failure above 3000 m (10,000 ft). If this occurs, the plane must begin an emergency descent, and oxygen masks are activated for everyone aboard. In most passenger jet aircraft (such as the Boeing 737^[2]), passenger oxygen masks are automatically deployed if the cabin altitude exceeds 14,000 feet.^[3]

[edit] History and usage of cabin pressurization

Prior to World War II the Boeing 307 Stratoliner had a pressurized cabin, though only ten such aircraft were produced. While the piston fighters of World War II often flew at very high altitudes, they were not pressurized; instead pilots used oxygen. However, in a larger bomber where crew moved about the cabin, this was considerably less practical. Therefore, the first bomber with cabin pressurization (though restricted to crew areas), was the B-29 Superfortress. The cabin pressure control system was designed for the B-29 by Garrett AiResearch Manufacturing Company, drawing in part on licensing of patents held by Boeing for the Stratoliner.^[4] Post-war piston airliners such as the Lockheed Constellation expanded the technology to civilian service, and as jet airliners were always designed for high-altitude operation, every jetliner features the technology.

Most turboprop aircraft also feature cabin pressurization due to their medium to high altitude operation. A very few piston-engined small private planes also do so; most do not routinely fly high enough to justify such a system.

[edit] Loss of pressurization

One consequence of cabin pressurization is that the pressure inside the airplane might be 70 kPa (10 psi), while the pressure outside is only 15 kPa (2 psi). An otherwise-harmless pinhole under these pressure differences will generate a high-pitched squeal as the air leaks out at supersonic speeds^{[citation needed]}. A hole a metre and a half (5 feet) across will depressurize a jetliner in a fraction of a second.

Rapid decompression is a change in cabin pressure where the lungs can decompress faster than the cabin.

Explosive decompression is a change in cabin pressure faster than the lungs can decompress (less than 0.5 seconds). This type of decompression is potentially dangerous and often results in lung damage and unsecured items / debris flying around the cabin.^{[citation needed]}

Rapid decompression of commercial aircraft is extremely rare, but dangerous. People directly next to a very large hole may be forced out or injured by flying debris. Floors and internal panels may deform.

Gradual or slow decompression is dangerous because it may not be detected. The Helios Airways 2005 accident is a good example ^[5]. Warning systems may be ignored, misinterpreted or fail and self-recognition of the subtle effects of hypoxia really depends upon previous experience and hypoxia familiarization training. Unfortunately, in most countries this has been largely restricted to military hypobaric chamber training with its risk of decompression sickness and barotrauma. Newer reduced oxygen breathing systems ^[6] are more accessible, safer and provide valuable practical experience ^[7] . Adding such practical training to knowledge required by regulatory authorities is likely to increase hypoxia awareness and aviation safety.

Hypoxia will result in loss of consciousness without emergency oxygen. The Time of Useful Consciousness varies depending on the altitude.

Additionally, the air temperature will plummet due to expansion, potentially resulting in frostbite.

• Contrary to Hollywood myth, as seen in the James Bond film, Goldfinger, people just a few feet from the hole are more at risk from hypoxia than from being forced out.

[edit] Effects of cabin pressurization on an aircraft fuselage

As the airplane is pressurized and depressurized, the metal skin of the airplane expands and contracts, resulting in metal fatigue. Modern aircraft are designed to resist this compression cycle, but some early jetliners (see De Havilland Comet) had fatal accidents due to underdesign for fatigue.

[edit] Effects of cabin pressurization on the human body

• Ear and paranasal sinuses: One needs to adjust to the pressurized cabin air from the beginning. 1 in 3 passengers suffer ear discomfort, pain and temporary hearing loss on takeoff or landing, called "aerotitus" by the House Ear Institute in Los Angeles. Rapid changes in air pressure cause the air pocket inside the ear to expand during takeoff and contract during descent, stretching the eardrum. To equalize pressure, air must enter or escape through the Eustachian tube. "If a passenger has serious congestion, they risk ear drum damage", says Sigfrid Soli, Ph.D., head of the HCSD Department at the HSI.^{[citation needed]}
• Tooth: Anyone with gas trapped in an infected tooth may also experience barodontalgia, a toothache provoked by exposure to changing atmospheric pressure.
• Pneumothorax: Anyone who has suffered a pneumothorax is recommended not to fly (even in a pressurised cabin) for at least 1 month and should obtain an x-ray prior to travelling.

As well as the more acute health effects experienced by some people, the cabin pressure altitude of 2,500 m (8,000 ft) typical in most airliners contributes to the fatigue experienced in long flights. The Boeing 787 airliner (in development) will feature pressuration to the equivalent of 1,800 m (6,000 ft), which Boeing claims will substantially increase passenger comfort. The Airbus A350 may go even further, with pressurising to 1,500 m (5,000 ft) being considered.^{[citation needed]}

Some people may still experience symptoms of altitude sickness despite the cabin pressure.

[edit] Noted incidents

• BOAC Flight 781: In-flight metal fatigue failure caused an explosive decompression, a form of cabin depressurization, in 1954, which killed 35 people. This was the first of a series of de Havilland Comet accidents that would require extensive redesign of the aircraft.
• Turkish Airlines Flight 981: A DC-10 lost its rear cargo door. The severity of the depressurization damaged hydraulic controls causing the flight crew to lose control. All 346 on board were killed.
• Japan Airlines Flight 123: A Boeing 747 had its rear pressure bulkhead fail, resulting in a decompression. The damage to the aircraft severed hydraulics, and the flight crew were unable to maintain control. 520 passengers died with only 4 survivors.
• Aloha Airlines Flight 243: A Boeing 737 explosive decompression, resulting in the death of one flight attendant.
• United Airlines Flight 811: A Boeing 747-122 lost its forward cargo door, resulting in the loss of several seats from the business class cabin and the deaths of 9 passengers.
• Golfer Payne Stewart and five others died in a Learjet accident as a result of loss of cabin pressure.
• Helios Airways Flight 522: A Cypriot Boeing 737 crashed in Greece on August 14, 2005, killing all 121 people aboard. It is believed that the plane failed to pressurize and the pilots fell unconscious.
• China Airlines Flight 611: A Boeing 747 disintegrated while climbing to cruising altitude on May 25, 2002, killing all 225 passengers aboard. This was caused by metal fatigue (caused by a faulty repair 22 years earlier) leading to the cabin's decompression.

[edit] See also

• Atmosphere (unit)
• Compressed air
• Rarefaction
• Space suit

[edit] First Airliners with pressurization systems

• Boeing 307
• Avro Tudor
• Lockheed Constellation
• Douglas DC-6

[edit] Notes

[edit] General references

• Seymour L. Chapin, "Garrett and Pressurized Flight: A Business Built on Thin Air," Pacific Historical Review 35 (August 1966): 329-343.
• Seymour L. Chapin, "Patent Interferences and the History of Technology: A High-flying Example," Technology and Culture 12 (July 1971): 414-446.
• Portions from the United States Naval Flight Surgeon's Manual
• CNN: 121 Dead in Greek Air Crash
• "Explosive Decompression" segment of MythBusters episode 10, January 11, 2004
  • also shown as a segment of Beyond Tomorrow episode 12