Black Hebrew Israelites
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Black Hebrew Israelites (also Black Hebrews, African Hebrew Israelites and Hebrew Israelites) are groups of people of African ancestry situated mostly in the United States who believe they are descendants of the ancient Israelites. They adhere in varying degrees to the religious beliefs and practices of mainstream Judaism. They are not generally accepted as Jews by the greater Jewish community. Many choose to self-identify as Hebrew Israelites or Black Hebrews rather than as Jews.[1][2][3][4]
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[edit] Overview
While Black Christians traditionally have identified themselves with the Children of Israel, they never claimed to be descendants of the Israelites.[5] In the late 19th century among some African Americans, an identification with the ancient Hebrews developed into an identification as ancient Hebrews.[6] One of the first groups of Black Hebrews, the Church of God and Saints of Christ, was founded in 1896.[6] During the following decades, many more Black Hebrew congregations were established. These groups claimed descent from the ancient Israelites. They selected elements of Judaism and adapted them within a structure similar to that of the Black church.[6]
The beliefs and practices of Black Hebrew groups vary considerably. The differences are so great that historian James Tinney has suggested the classification of the organizations into three groups: Black Jews, who maintain a Christological perspective and adopt Jewish rituals; Black Hebrews, who are more traditional in their practice of Judaism; and Black Israelites, who are most nationalistic and farthest from traditional Judaism.[7]
Nevertheless, Black Hebrew organizations have certain common characteristics. Anthropologist James E. Landing, author of Black Judaism, distinguishes the Black Hebrew movement, which he refers to as Black Judaism, from normative Judaism practiced by people who are Black (black Judaism):
Black Judaism is ... a form of institutionalized (congregational) religious expression in which black persons identify themselves as Jews, Israelites, or Hebrews...in a manner that seems unacceptable to the the "whites" of the world's Jewish community, primarily because Jews take issue with the various justifications set forth by Black Jews in establishing this identity. Thus "Black Judaism," as defined here, stands distinctly apart from "black Judaism," or that Judaic expression found among black persons that would be acceptable to the world's Jewish community, such as conversion or birth to a recognized Jewish mother. "Black Judaism" has been a social movement; "black Judaism" has been an isolated social phenomenon.[8]
Landing's definition, and its underlying assumptions about race and normative Judaism, have been criticized,[9] but it provides a helpful framework for understanding some of the common traits that various Black Hebrew organizations share.
In the mid-1980s, the number of Black Hebrews in the United States was between 25,000 and 40,000.[10] In the 1990s, the Alliance of Black Jews estimated that there were 200,000 African American Jews, including Black Hebrews and those recognized as Jews by mainstream Jewish organizations.[11]
[edit] Groups
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, dozens of Black Hebrew organizations were established.[6] In Harlem alone, at least eight such groups were founded between 1919 and 1931.[12] This article will focus on the oldest known group, one of the largest organizations, a group noted for its adherence to traditional Judaism, and an organization widely known for its move from the United States to Israel.
[edit] Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations
The oldest known Black Hebrew organization is the Church of the Living God, the Pillar Ground of Truth for All Nations.[13][14] The group was founded by F. S. Cherry in Chattanooga, Tennessee, in 1886, and later moved to Philadelphia.[15] Theologically, the Church of the Living God mixed elements of Judaism and Christianity, counting the Bible — including the New Testament — and the Talmud as essential scriptures.[16] The rituals of Cherry’s flock incorporated many Jewish practices and prohibitions alongside some Christian traditions.[17] For example, during prayer the men wore skullcaps and congregants faced east. In addition, members of the Church were not permitted to eat pork.[17] Prayers were accompanied by musical instruments and gospel singing.[18] After Cherry's death, members of the church believed he had left temporarily and would reappear soon in spirit, to lead the church through his son.[19] The movement has been reported to survive under the leadership of Cherry’s son, but little is known about it.[citation needed]
[edit] Church of God and Saints of Christ
The Church of God and Saints of Christ was established in Lawrence, Kansas, in 1896 by William Saunders Crowdy.[20] The group established its headquarters in Philadelphia in 1899, and Crowdy later relocated to Washington, D.C., in 1903. After Crowdy's death in 1908, the church continued to grow under the leadership of William Henry Plummer, who moved the organization's headquarters to its permanent location in Belleville, Virginia, in 1921.[21] In 1936, the Church of God and Saints of Christ had more than 200 "tabernacles" (congregations) and 37,000 members.[19][22] Howard Zebulun Plummer succeeded his father and became head of the organization in 1931.[23] His son, Levi Solomon Plummer, became the church's leader in 1975.[24] Since 2001, the Church of God and Saints of Christ has been led by Rabbi Jehu A. Crowdy, Jr., a great-grandson of William Saunders Crowdy.[25] As of 2005, it had fifty tabernacles in the United States and dozens in Africa.[20]
The Church of God and Saints of Christ describes itself as "the oldest African-American congregation in the United States that adheres to the tenets of Judaism".[26][14] It teaches that all Jews had been black originally, and that African-Americans are descendants of the lost tribes of Israel.[27][28] Members believe that Jesus was neither God nor the son of God, but rather an adherent to Judaism and a prophet. They also consider William Saunders Crowdy to be a prophet.[29]
The Church of God and Saints of Christ synthesizes rituals from both Judaism and Christianity. They have adopted rites drawn from both the Old Testament and New Testament. Its Jewish observances include circumcision of newborn boys, use of the Hebrew calendar, wearing of yarmulkes, observance of Saturday as the Sabbath, and celebration of Passover. Its New Testament rites include baptism (immersion) and footwashing, both of which have Old Testament origins.[27][28]
[edit] Commandment Keepers
Wentworth Arthur Matthew founded the Commandment Keepers Congregation in Harlem in 1919.[2] Matthew was influenced by the white Jews he met and by Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. One of the accomplishments of Garvey's movement was to strengthen the connection between black Americans and Africa, Ethiopia in particular, and when Matthew learned about the Beta Israel — Ethiopian Jews — he identified with them.[30]
The Commandment Keepers follow traditional Jewish practice and observe Jewish holidays.[31] Members observe Jewish dietary laws, circumcise newborn boys and celebrate bar mitzvah, and their synagogue has a partition to separate men and woman during worship.[32]
The Commandment Keepers believe they are descendants of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba.[33] Matthew taught that "the Black man is a Jew" and "all genuine Jews are Black men",[34] but he valued white Jews as those who had preserved Judaism over the centuries.[2] Matthew maintained cordial ties with white Jewish leaders in New York and frequently invited them to worship at his synagogue.[35]
Matthew established the Ethiopian Hebrew Rabbinical College (later renamed the Israelite Rabbinical Academy). He ordained more than 20 rabbis, who went on to lead congregations throughout the United States and the Caribbean.[35][34] He remained the leader of the Commandment Keepers in Harlem, and in 1962 the congregation moved to a landmark building on 123rd Street.[36]
Matthew died in 1973, sparking an internal conflict over who would succeed him as head of the Harlem congregation. Shortly before his death Matthew named his grandson, David Matthew Doré, the new spiritual leader. Doré was 16 years old at the time. In 1975, the synagogue's board elected Rabbi Willie White to be its leader. Rabbi Doré occasionally conducted services at the synagogue until the early 1980s, when White had Doré and some other members locked out of the building. Membership declined throughout the 1990s and by 2004 only a few dozen people belonged to the synagogue. In 2007 the Commandment Keepers sold the building that housed their synagogue while various factions among former members sued one another.[32][37]
Beside the Harlem group, there are eight or ten Commandment Keeper congregations in the New York area and others throughout North America and in Israel.[38] Since 2000, seven rabbis have graduated from the Israelite Rabbinical Academy founded by Matthew.[39]
[edit] African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem
Ben Ammi Ben Israel established The African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem in Chicago, Illinois, in 1966. In 1969, after a sojourn in Liberia, Ben Ammi and about 30 Hebrew Israelites moved to Israel.[40] Over the next 20 years nearly 600 more members left the United States for Israel. As of 2006, about 2,500 Hebrew Israelites live in Dimona and two other towns in the Negev region of Israel, where they are widely referred to as Black Hebrews.[41] In addition, there are Hebrew Israelite communities in several major American cities, including Chicago, St. Louis, and Washington, D.C.[42]
The Black Hebrews believe they are descended from members of the Tribe of Judah who were exiled from the Land of Israel after the Romans destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE.[41][43] The group incorporates elements of African American culture into their interpretation of the Bible,[42] and they do not recognize rabbinical Jewish interpretations such as the Talmud.[41] The Black Hebrews observe Shabbat and biblically-ordained Jewish holidays such as Yom Kippur and Passover.[44] Men wear tzitzit on their African print shirts, women follow the biblical laws concerning menstruation,[42] and newborn boys are circumcised.[40] In accordance with their interpretation of the Bible, the Black Hebrews follow a strictly vegan diet and wear only natural fabrics.[43][40] Most men have more than one wife, and birth control is not permitted.[41]
When the first Black Hebrews arrived in Israel in 1969, they claimed citizenship under the Law of Return, which gives eligible Jews immediate citizenship.[45] The Israeli government ruled in 1973 that the group did not qualify for automatic citizenship, and the Black Hebrews were denied work permits and state benefits. The group responded by accusing the Israeli government of racist discrimination.[46] In 1981, a group of American civil rights activist led by Bayard Rustin investigated and concluded that racism was not the cause of Black Hebrews' situation.[47] No official action was taken to return the Black Hebrews to the United States, but some individual members were deported for working illegally. Some Black Hebrews renounced their American citizenship to try to prevent more deportations. In 1990, Illinois legislators helped negotiate an agreement that resolved the Black Hebrews' legal status in Israel. Members of the group are permitted to work and have access to housing and social services. The Black Hebrews reclaimed their American citizenship and have received aid from the U.S. government that helped them build a school and additional housing.[46] In 2003 the agreement was revised, and the Black Hebrews were granted permanent resident status.[48][49]
The Black Hebrews have become well-known for their gospel choir, which tours throughout Israel and the United States. The group owns restaurants in several Israeli cities.[46] In 2003 the Black Hebrews garnered much public attention when singer Whitney Houston visited them in Dimona.[50][51][52] In 2006, Eddie Butler, a Black Hebrew, was chosen by the Israeli public to represent Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest.[49][41]
[edit] See also
- Afro-American religion
- Groups claiming an affiliation with the ancient Israelites
- Jews and Judaism in the African diaspora
[edit] Notes
- ^ Ben-Jochannan, p. 306.
- ^ a b c Ben Levy, Sholomo. The Black Jewish or Hebrew Israelite Community. Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved on 2007-12-15.
- ^ "Black Hebrews". Encyclopedia of World Religions. (2006). Ed. Johannes P. Schade. Franklin Park, N.J.: Foreign Media Group. ISBN 1601360002.
- ^ Bahrampour, Tara. "They're Jewish, With a Gospel Accent", The New York Times, June 26, 2000. Retrieved on 2008-01-19.
- ^ Chireau, p. 18.
- ^ a b c d Chireau, p. 21.
- ^ Tinney, James (December 7, 1973). "Black Jews: A House Divided". Christianity Today: pp. 52–54., cited at Chireau, p. 29.
- ^ Landing, p. 10, quoted in Walter, p. 520.
- ^ Isaac, pp. 512–542.
- ^ Sundquist, p. 118.
- ^ Michael Gelbwasser (1998-04-10). Organization for black Jews claims 200,000 in U.S.. j.. Retrieved on 2008-02-12.
- ^ Parfitt, p. 96.
- ^ Singer, p. 57.
- ^ a b Chireau, pp. 30–31. "The founding dates of the earliest black-Jewish congregations are in dispute. Shapiro notes that F.S. Cherry's Church of God was organized in Tennessee in 1886, but other sources do not confirm this date. Another group, the Moorish Zion Temple, founded in 1899 by a Rabbi Richlieu of Brooklyn, New York, was one of the earliest black Jewish congregations that did not combine Jewish and Christian beliefs, as did the Church of God and the Saints of Christ."
- ^ Singer, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Fauset, p. 34.
- ^ a b Fauset, pp. 36–40.
- ^ Fauset, pp. 36–37.
- ^ a b Hudson, Peter (1999). "Black Jews". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Ed. Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr.. New York: Basic Civitas Books. 1050.
- ^ a b Fox, Andrew. "Sons of Abraham", The College Hill Independent, September 29, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-10-20.
- ^ Wynia, pp. 31–34.
- ^ Wynia, n.p.
- ^ Greene, p. 42.
- ^ Historical Timeline. Church of God and Saints of Christ. Retrieved on 2008-02-09.
- ^ Rabbi Jehu August Crowdy, Jr.. Church of God and Saints of Christ. Retrieved on 2008-02-09.
- ^ Church of God and Saints of Christ. Retrieved on 2008-02-09.
- ^ a b Kidd, p. 59.
- ^ a b Singer, p. 59.
- ^ Gallagher, p. 146.
- ^ Chireau, p. 25.
- ^ Moses, p. 537.
- ^ a b Herschthal, Eric. "Decline Of A Black Synagogue", The Jewish Week, July 6, 2007. Retrieved on 2008-02-09.
- ^ Parfitt, p. 95.
- ^ a b Sundquist, p. 116.
- ^ a b Wolfson, p. 48.
- ^ Commandment Keepers Ethiopian Hebrew Congregation. New York Architecture. Retrieved on 2008-02-01.
- ^ Ben Levy, Sholomo. The Destruction of Commandment Keepers, Inc. 1919-2007. BlackJews.org. International Israelite Board of Rabbis. Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
- ^ Goldschmidt, p. 221.
- ^ Israelite Academy. BlackJews.org. International Israelite Board of Rabbis. Retrieved on 2008-02-10.
- ^ a b c Haas, Danielle. "Black Hebrews fight for citizenship in Israel", San Francisco Chronicle, November 15, 2002. Retrieved on 2008-05-25.
- ^ a b c d e Associated Press. "Music Earns Black Hebrews Some Acceptance", CBS News, April 5, 2006. Retrieved on 2008-05-25.
- ^ a b c Michaeli, p. 75.
- ^ a b Our Story. The African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem. Retrieved on 2008-05-25.
- ^ Michaeli, p. 76.
- ^ Michaeli, pp. 73–74.
- ^ a b c Michaeli, p. 74.
- ^ Shipler, David K.. "Israelis Urged To Act Over Black Hebrew Cult", The New York Times, January 30, 1981. Retrieved on 2008-05-28.
- ^ The Hebrew Israelite Community. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (29 September 2006). Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
- ^ a b Kaufman, David. "Quest for a Homeland Gains a World Stage", The New York Times, April 16, 2006. Retrieved on 2008-05-28.
- ^ "Israel retreat for Houston", BBC News Online, 27 May 2003. Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
- ^ Associated Press. "Whitney Houston visits Israel for Christmas album inspiration", USA Today, May 28, 2003. Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
- ^ Palti, Michal. "Whitney does Dimona", Haaretz, May 29, 2003. Retrieved on 2008-05-26.
[edit] References
- Ben-Jochannan, Yosef A. A. [1983] (1993). We, the Black Jews: Witness to the "White Jewish Race" Myth. Baltimore: Black Classic Press. ISBN 0933121407.
- Chireau, Yvonne (2000). "Black Culture and Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism, 1790–1930, an Overview", in Yvonne Patricia Chireau, Nathaniel Deutsch, eds.: Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195112571.
- Fauset, Arthur Huff [1944] (2002). Black Gods of the Metropolis: Negro Religious Cults of the Urban North. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812210018.
- Gallagher, Eugene V. (2004). The New Religious Movements Experience in America. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313328072.
- Goldschmidt, Henry (2006). Race and Religion Among the Chosen Peoples of Crown Heights. New Brusnwick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0813538971.
- Greene, Lorenzo Johnston; Arvarh E. Strickland, ed. (1996). Selling Black History for Carter G. Woodson: A Diary, 1930–1933. Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0826210686.
- Isaac, Walter (2006). "Locating African-American Judaism: A Critique of White Normativity", in Lewis R. Gordon, Jane Anna Gordon, eds.: A Companion to African-American Studies. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0631235167.
- Kidd, Colin (2006). The Forging of Races: Race and Scripture in the Protestant Atlantic World, 1600-2000. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521793246.
- Landing, James E. (2002). Black Judaism: Story of an American Movement. Durham, N. C.: Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 0890898200.
- Michaeli, Ethan (2000). "Another Exodus: The Hebrew Israelites from Chicago to Dimona", in Yvonne Patricia Chireau, Nathaniel Deutsch, eds.: Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195112571.
- Moses, Wilson Jeremiah (2003). "Chosen Peoples of the Metropolis: Black Muslims, Black Jews, and Others", in Cornel West, Eddie S. Glaude, Jr., eds.: African American Religious Thought: An Anthology. Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0664224598.
- Parfitt, Tudor; Emanuela Trevisan Semi (2002). Judaising Movements: Studies in the Margins of Judaism in Modern Times. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0700715150.
- Singer, Merrill (2000). "Symbolic Identity Formation in an African American Religious Sect: The Black Hebrew Israelites", in Yvonne Patricia Chireau, Nathaniel Deutsch, eds.: Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195112571.
- Sundquist, Eric J. (2002). Strangers in the Land: Blacks, Jews, Post-Holocaust America. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674019423.
- Wolfson, Bernard J. (2000). "African American Jews: Dispelling Myths, Bridging the Divide", in Yvonne Patricia Chireau, Nathaniel Deutsch, eds.: Black Zion: African American Religious Encounters with Judaism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195112571.
- Wynia, Elly M. (1994). The Church of God and Saints of Christ: The Rise of Black Jews. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0815311362.
[edit] External links
- General
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- Black Hebrew Israelites, ReligousTolerance.org
- Groups
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- Church of God and Saints of Christ
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- Commandment Keepers
- BlackJews.org, A Project of the International Board of Rabbis
- Commandment Keepers Ethiopian Hebrew Congregation
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- African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem
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- Other groups
