Battle of Cuito Cuanavale

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Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
Part of Angolan Civil War and South African Border War
Date September 10, 1987 -1988 Location 15°09′50″S 19°10′23″E / -15.16389, 19.17306 (Battle of Cuito Cuanavale)Coordinates: 15°09′50″S 19°10′23″E / -15.16389, 19.17306 (Battle of Cuito Cuanavale) Cuito Cuanavale, Angola Result Results Disputed. Victory claimed by both sides.
Belligerents
FAPLA  Cuba SWAPO	South Africa UNITA
Commanders
Gen. Leopoldo "Polo" Cintras Frías [1]	Col. Deon Ferreira
Strength
19,500 combined estimate (1,500 Cuba[1][2]; 10,000 FAPLA)	11,000-12,000 combined estimate (3,000-4,000 SADF[3]; 8,000 UNITA[4])
Casualties and losses
- 14 Cuba[5] (Official) - estimates range from 900 to 4,000 combined[6]	- 31 SADF(Official) -3000 UNITA[7]

The battle of Cuito Cuanavale was one of the most important episodes of both the civil war in Angola (1975 to 2002) and the South African Border War. The armies of Cuba, Angola and South Africa met at Cuito Cuanavale in 1987, and the battle has been called "Africa's largest land battle since World War II".^[2] With all sides claiming victory, it was a turning point in the Angolan civil war, leading to the departure of Cuban, South African and other foreign troops from Angola and Namibia, and the independence of Namibia which was also linked to their withdrawal.

Contents 1 Context 1.1 Independence from Portugal 1.2 Cold War 2 Participants 3 Battle 3.1 FAPLA advance on Mavinga 3.2 South African reaction 3.3 Prelude 3.4 Final phase 4 Aftermath 5 See also 6 References 7 Literature 8 External links

[edit] Context

[edit] Independence from Portugal

Main article: Angolan War of Independence

For 16 years until 1975, three armed groups fought for Angola's independence from Portugal: the Marxist MPLA (with its armed wing FAPLA), led by Agostinho Neto; the conservative FNLA, led by Holden Roberto; and UNITA, led by the charismatic Jonas Savimbi. Each group controlled specific areas of the country: the MPLA controlled the capital, Luanda; UNITA controlled the south of Angola; and the FNLA controlled the north.^[8]

Soon after the Carnation Revolution in Portugal, Lisbon began letting go of its African colonies and Angola received its independence. The Treaty of Alvor comprised a series of agreements between the three rebel factions and Portugal that paved the way to full sovereignty. Under the terms of the treaty, a transitional government was formed, elections were scheduled for the end of the year, and November 11, 1975 was slated as Angola's independence day. Fighting between the three rebel factions started soon after the transitional government took office. The MPLA gained control of the capital. On 9 August the South African Army (SADF) occupied the Ruacana hydro-electric complex on the border with Namibia; on 14. October South Africa launched Operation Savanah in support of UNITA and FNLA advancing on Luanda and coming within 200km of the city. The FNLA, supported by royalist Zairian units, South Africans and Portuguese mercenaries advanced on Luanda from the east and got as far as Kifangondo. On 7 November Cuba launched Operation Carlota, intervening in favour of the MPLA (see Cuba in Angola). The MPLA managed to hold Luanda and on 11 November Agostinho Neto proclaimed the independence of Angola.

[edit] Cold War

Main articles: Cold War and Angolan Civil War

The civil war continued more or less unabated until 2002. The Angolan Civil War cost an estimated half a million lives^[9][10] and devastated the country's infrastructure. The tragedy played out against the backdrop of the Cold War struggle between the Soviet Union and the United States. Both superpowers realised the strategic importance of southern Africa, a region rich in natural resources (petroleum, natural gas, gold, diamonds) and ringed by shipping routes along its coast. Both sides tried to influence the outcome of the civil war through proxies. Cuba and the Soviet-led Eastern bloc gave overt military support to the MPLA and Namibian rebels, while the United States (and, to a much lesser extent, France) countered by bolstering UNITA and South Africa with sales of war material.

[edit] Participants

The MPLA, outgunned by its enemy UNITA, reached out to the Communist regime of Cuba for support. Between January and August of 1975, the MPLA was furnished with a military school, weapons, means of transport, transmitters, uniforms and combat equipment.^[3] By the end of the year, Cuban troops had arrived on Angolan soil to back up FAPLA after the Battle of Quifadongo.^{[citation needed]} By March of 1976, Cuba had sent around 36,000 troops to the region, mainly to provide logistical support to FAPLA officers. Apart from the Cuban troops and equipment, several members of the Eastern Bloc, under Soviet direction, provided support to the MPLA, mostly in the form of specialized technical staff (including pilots) and military hardware. Soviet generals fulfilled leadership roles.^{[citation needed]}

UNITA received heavy backing from the United States and the apartheid government in South Africa. While the U.S. helped UNITA with money and weaponry, South Africa sent around 5,000 troops in aid. South Africa's interests in Angola lay in preventing a MPLA takeover. Angola bordered on the South African protectorate Namibia (at the time called South West Africa), which was then under threat from SWAPO, a Communist-backed guerrilla force that was fighting for Namibian independence from bases in Angola. South Africa aimed to clear out MPLA and SWAPO forces from southern Angola and establish a buffer zone to prevent further incursions into South West Africa. The FNLA was propped up by the dictator of Zaire, Mobutu Sese Seko (Holden Roberto's brother-in-law), who dispatched around 2,000 troops to Angola. However, by the time of the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale the FNLA had ceased to matter.

[edit] Battle

[edit] FAPLA advance on Mavinga

In 1987 as part of the MPLA's struggle for dominion over Angola, the group launched a campaign to rout UNITA forces from their stronghold cities of Mavinga, a former Portuguese military base and Jamba in the southeast of the country just above the Caprivi Strip.^[11] Under the leadership of Soviet generals^[12], it was decided to commence the attack from Cuito Cuanavale. In August the 21st, 25th (both light infantry), 47th (armoured) and the 59th (mechanized) brigades (some sources^[who?] also include the 16th brigade) of FAPLA, under Soviet command, departed from the city Cuito Cuanavale in the Cuando Cubango province of south-east Angola. They received air support from the large airbase at Menongue, including MiG 23s deployed in a ground-attack role.^[13]

[edit] South African reaction

The South African government's strategic concern was to ensure continued UNITA control over regions bordering Namibia, so as to prevent the MPLA-aligned SWAPO guerrillas from gaining a springboard in southern Angola from which to launch attacks into Namibia. In October of 1987 the South African government responded to the FAPLA/Soviet offensive by launching a series of military operations in conjunction with UNITA forces, beginning with Operation Modular.

[edit] Prelude

South African and UNITA forces, having gained the upper-hand with Operation Modular, then launched Operation Hooper. After a string of defeats, FAPLA forces retreated to the strategically important town of Cuito Cuanavale, with an air base located at 15.1667° S 19.1667° E. If Cuito Cuanavale were lost by FAPLA, the next closest comparable outpost would be Menongue, 300km from Mavinga and 500km from UNITA's headquarters at Jamba.^[14]

The remnants of three FAPLA brigades were cut off on the east of the Cuito River, across from the town itself and, with no functioning armour or artillery remaining, faced annihilation.^[15] The MPLA, fearing defeat, requested more help from Cuba. Fidel Castro responded by sending - in what was called "Maniobra XXXI Aniversario de las FAR" - materiel and 15,000 elite troops to the MPLA's rescue.^[16] (This brought the total number of Cuban troops in all of Angola up to 50,000.^[17] The first Cuban reinforcements arrived by helicopter in Cuito Cuanavale on December 5 and repaired damaged equipment. The South African advance was halted 22 km east of Cuito Cuanavale at the Tumpo river (15.18° S 18.957° E) by FAPLA forces, who set up positions fortified by thick minefields. Though stalled, the South Africans secured the tactically important Chambinga Heights.

[edit] Final phase

Major operations continued through March 23, 1988 including several massive ground assaults^[18] with infantry (primarily UNITA), armoured cars and tanks on FAPLA positions. After this, the SADF withdrew the bulk of their forces.^[19][20] They left the artillery, due to the difficulty in transporting it during the rainy season^[21][22]. The South Africans continued shelling (using their long-range G-5 artillery^[23]) both the air strip and the city, from the high grounds of the Chambinga Heights, for months. Cuban and FAPLA forces retained the city. South African and UNITA forces claimed to have inflicted enormous casualties on Cuban and FAPLA forces, and to have accomplished their objective of repulsing the offensive against UNITA havens in southeast Angola. Cuban and FAPLA forces, however, count the failure of the South Africans to capture the city and the resilience of their troops under bombardment as a triumph. Regardless of which side was the victor, the battle marked a major turning point in the course of events in southern Africa.

(On March 8, General Cintras Frías began opening a second front near Calueque, with 40,000 Cuban troops and a larger number of Angolan forces.^[24][25])

By February 1988, it had become clear to all sides that a stalemate had been reached, and that a victory would not be achievable without a considerable escalation in the conflict.^[26] Consequently, following a series of peace discussions throughout 1988 mediated by Chester Crocker, a peace accord was finally signed by the parties on December 22, 1988 in New York whereby South Africa and Cuba agreed to the withdrawal of their troops from Angola, and a timetable was set for Namibian independence from South Africa.

[edit] Aftermath

The SADF side claimed they inflicted severe casualties on the Cubans forcing them to the negotiation table and the Cubans claiming they defeated the SADF to do the same.^[27] In fact much of the aftermath has been mired in propaganda. In Black Africa - particularly in southern Africa - the battle has attained legendary status. To that part of the world it is considered the debacle of apartheid: a rout of the South African armed forces that altered the balance of power in the region and heralded the demise of racist rule in South Africa. Thus, the battle is often referred to as the African Stalingrad of apartheid: the decisive event that defeated Pretoria's objective of establishing regional hegemony - a strategy which was vital to defending and preserving apartheid - and directly led to the independence of Namibia and accelerated the dismantling of apartheid. In this point of view Cuba's contribution was crucial as it provided the essential reinforcements, material and planning.

The South African Defense Minister claimed that the taking of Cuito Cuanavale had never been intended.^[28] A military analyst associated with the "authoritative"^[29] International Institute of Strategic Studies in London pointed out that the use by UNITA of the FIM-92 Stinger anti-aircraft system reduced the MIGs to using high altitudes techniques ineffective for close air support.^[30]

The SADF claims a large number of government casualties of 4,000, 100 armored vehicles, 9 aircraft as well as a heavy loss of armour (94 tanks) due to their use of obsolete T-55 tanks and poorly trained crews against more modern SADF anti-tank weaponry and targeting devices.^[31]

The South African and American view is expressed by John Turner who claims that following their losses, the Cubans were convinced that further military confrontation with the SADF would not succeed.^[32]

The Cuban claim of victory over South African forces was seen as a major development in the African anti-colonial struggle.^{[citation needed]}

Subsequent comments made by a Soviet adviser to the Cubans in Angola suggest a stalemate: "The people's armed forces for the liberation of Angola have not been able either, even with the help of the Cubans, to decisively defeat the enemy and drive him out of the territory or the country. The result, frankly speaking, was an impasse."^{[33][citation needed]}

Nelson Mandela supported the Cuban version of its vital role in a July 26, 1991 speech delivered in Havana: "The Cuban people hold a special place in the hearts of the people of Africa. The Cuban internationalists have made a contribution to African independence, freedom and justice unparalleled for its principled and selfless character. We in Africa are used to being victims of countries wanting to carve up our territory or subvert our sovereignty. It is unparalleled in African history to have another people rise to the defence of one of us. The defeat of the apartheid army was an inspiration to the struggling people in South Africa. Without the defeat of Cuito Cuanavale our organizations would not have been unbanned. The defeat of the racist army at Cuito Cuanavale has made it possible for me to be here today. Cuito Cuanavale was a milestone in the history of the struggle for southern African liberation."^[34]

[edit] See also

• List of operations of the South African Border War
• Cuba in Angola

[edit] References

[edit] Literature

• Crocker, Chester A (1992). High Noon in Southern Africa: Making Peace in a Rough Neighborhood. W.W. Norton. ISBN 1868420132. 

• Kahn, Owen Ellison (1991). Disengagement from Southwest Africa: The Prospects for Peace in Angola and Namibia. ISBN 0887383610. 

• George, Edward (2005). The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965-1991 From Che Guevara to Cuito Cuanavale. Routledge. ISBN 0415350158. 

• Gleijeses, Piero (2002). Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959-1976. The University of North Carolina Press; New edition. ISBN 0807826472. 

• Gleijeses, Piero (2006). "Moscow's Proxy? Cuba and Africa 1975–1988", Journal of Cold War Studies 8.4. President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 98-146. 

• Goulding, Marrack (2003). Peacemonger. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 

• Heitman, Helmoed-Römer (1990). War in Angola: The Final South African Phase. ISBN 0620143703. 

• Holt, C. (2005). At Thy Call we did not falter. Zebra Press. ISBN 1770071172. 

• Kissinger, Henry (1999). Years of Renewal. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684855712. 

• Nortje, P. (2004). 32 Battalion. Struik. ISBN 1-86872-914-1. 

• Ricardo Luis, Roger (1989). Prepárense a vivir: Crónicas de Cuito Cuanavale. Havana: Editora Politica. 

• Stockwell, John (1978). In Search of Enemies: A CIA Story. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. Inc.. ISBN 0735100128. 

• Steenkamp, Willem (1989). South Africa's Border War, 1966–1989. Gibraltar: Ashanti Publishing. ISBN 0620139676. 

• Stiff, Peter (1999). The Silent War: South African Recce Operations 1969–1994. Alberton, South Africa: Galago. ISBN 0620243007. 

• Turner, John W. (1998). Continent Ablaze; The Insurgency Wars in Africa, 1960 to the Present. ISBN ISBN 1-85409-128-X. 

[edit] External links

• Cuito Cuanavale Revisited
• The Battle of Cuito Cuanavale
• Angola National Security
• Angola and Southwest Africa: A Forgotten War (1975-89.
• Aid to UNITA - Operations MODULAR, HOOPER and PACKER
• Operations Modular and Hooper 1987-88
• 7th South African Infantry Battalion and Cuito Cuanavale
• Cuban Tanks at Cuito Cuanavale
• Cuban MiG-23 Fighters at Cuito Cuanavale (Spanish)
• South African Tanks at Cuito Cuanavale
• U.S. Marine Corps Paper: Fighting Columns in Small Wars (Partially devoted to SADF Angolan Operations during this time period)
• South African Bush War Veterans Site