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[edit] Modern era
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The nascent beginnings of modern Kannada literature can be traced to the early 19th century when Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and his court poets attempted to steer away from the ancient champu form of prose and popularise prose renderings of Sanskrit epics and plays. Kempu Narayana's Mudramanjusha ("Seal Casket", 1823) can be considered as the first modern novel before English influence on Kannada.[1][2]
The impetus to modern literature also came from the onset of western style of education and the Christian missionaries who relied on the local language to propagate their gospel. The arrival of the printing press acted as a catalyst in this process. Among the several early Kannada publications, the first Kannada-English dictionary by Ferdinand Kittel (1894) is noteworthy.[2] Another prominent Christian missionary, Hermann Mögling, was responsible for publishing Kannada classics under a series called Bibliotheca Carnataca during 1848–1853 and the first-ever Kannada newspaper called Mangalore Samachara in 1843.[3] British officers like B. L. Rice and J. H. Fleet edited and published critical editions of surviving literary classics, contemporary folk ballads and inscriptions.
The late nineteenth century was a period of extensive spadework and progress towards a standardisation of prose, and a push towards original works in prose narratives gained momentum.[4] This effort was facilitated in great measure by translations of works from English, Sanskrit and other Indian languages like Marathi and Bengali, where substantial progress had already been made. Lakshman Gadagkar's Suryakantha (1892) and Gulvadi Venkata Rao (1899) Indira Bai signalled the beginnings of an era of modern literature where the language and its aesthetics moved away from the highly stylised mores of archaic Kannada to modern prose which brought with it a profusion of new genres like the novel, essay, literary criticism and drama.[5][6]
[edit] Navodaya - A period of awakening
- 1900-1925 - A seed time
At the turn of the century, B. M. Srikantaiah ('B. M. Sri'), regarded by some as the "Father of modern Kannada literature",[7] gave the call for a new era of writing original works in modern Kannada while also stressing on moving away from old Kannada. This paradigmatic shift spawned an age of prolificacy in Kannada literature and came to be dubbed the Navodaya (lit. 'A new rise') period - a period of awakening. B. M. Sri himself from the front with his English Geethagalu ("English Songs") - a collection of poems translated from English which would set the tone for more translations geared towards a standardisation of the modern idiom in writing.[8] Though translations were rife in this period, original and seminal works which drew greatly native and folk traditions also emerged. Stalwarts like S. G. Narasimhachar, Panje Mangesha Rao and Hattiangadi Narayana Rao also pitched in with celebrated efforts. The subjects now veered from discussing kings and gods to pursuits more humanistic and secular. Several forms of western literature, the novel and the short story in particular, forayed into Kannada. The novel found an early champion in Shivaram Karanth (subsequently a Jnanapeeth awardee) while another prominent writer, Masti Venkatesh Iyengar, is credited with laying the foundation for a generation of short-story tellers with his Kelavu Sanna Kathegalu ("A few Short Stories", 1920) and Sanna Kathegalu ("Short Stories", 1924).[9]
The consolidation of modern drama was pioneered by T. P. Kailasam, with his Tollu Gatti ("The Hollow and the Solid", 1918). Kailasam followed this with Tali Kattoke Cooline ("Wages for tying the Mangalsutra"), a critic on the dowry system in marriage.[8] His plays were mainly concerned with problems affecting middle class Brahmin families: the dowry system, religious persecution, woes in the extended family system and exploitation of women.[10] Novels of the period promoted a nationalist consciousness in keeping with the developments of the time. While the likes of Venkatachar and Galaganath chose to translate Bankim and Harinarayana Apte respectively, Gulvadi Venkata Rao, Kerur Vasudevachar and M. S. Puttanna sowed the seeds of a tradition of realistic novels with their works. A much revered figure, Aluru Venkatarao's Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava had a profound influence on the movement for Karnataka's unification.
- 1925-1950 - The Golden harvest
While the first quarter of the century can be seen as a period of experiment and innovation, the succeeding quarter was one of creative achievement. This period saw the rise of acclaimed lyricists whose poetics combined the mystic poetry of the Vachanas and Kirthanas of medieval times and the native folk songs of oral traditions, with influences from modern English romantics.[11] D. R. Bendre with his collection of 27 poems, including such masterpieces as Gari ("Wing", 1932), Nadaleela (1938) and Sakhigeetha (1940) is perhaps the most outstanding of modern Kannada lyricists.[12] They covered a wide range of themes including patriotism, love of nature, conjugal love, transcendental experiences and sympathy for the poor.[8] Govinda Pai, in unique work in Golgotha (1931) depicted an authentic ambience in its . Considered a unique Christian work, Pai narrates the story in detail, from Christ being taken to Pontius Pilate by a hostile group of Jews demanding his death to the events leading to his crucifixion at Golgotha. The success of this work encouraged Pai to follow with three panegyrics in 1947; Vaishakhi, Prabhasa and Dehali, narrating the last days of the Buddha, God Krishna and Gandhi respectively.[13] His Hebberalu ("Thumb", 1946) dramatises the story of Drona and Ekalavya, characters from the epic Mahabharata.[14]
Kuvempu, who would subsequently become Kannada's first Jnanpith awardee, showed his brilliance in using the blank verse in his magnum opus Sri Ramayana Darshanam (1949).[15] This work marks the beginning of modern Kannada epic poetry.[16] The work abounds in metaphors and similes and brings home the thought that all living beings will eventually evolve into perfect beings.[17] Masti's Navaratri and P. T. Narasimhachar's Hanathe are other notable works of the period. D. V. Gundappa's Mankuthimmana Kagga ("Dull Thimma's Rigmarole", 1943) comes closest in comparison to the wisdom poems of the late medieval poet Sarvajna.[18] A celebrated writer of conjugal love poems, K. S. Narasimhaswamy won critical acclaim for Mysore Mallige ("Mysore Jasmine", 1942), a description of the bliss of everyday marital life.[14]
Poetic drama witnessed a rise inspired greatly by B.M.Sri's Gadayuddha Natakam (1925) - an adaptation of Ranna's medieval epic. While Kuvempu and Srikantiah opt for old Kannada, Masti and later P. T. Narasimhachar with their modern kannada reveal modern sensibilities in their Yashodhara (1938) and Ahalye(1940).
In the field of drama, the 30s saw the emergence of Sriranga who joined forces with Samsa and Kailasam to pen some of the most successful plays of all time. Samsa completed his trilogy about Ranadhira Kantirava with his Vijayanarasimha (36) and Mantrashakti (38). Kailasam's mastery over wit and stage rhetoric come to the fore in his Home Rule(30) and Vaidyana Vyadi (40) while he explores his serious side in Bhahishkara and Soole where he unleashes his unbridled contempt and of outdated quasi religious mores. The desire to expose social ills is also on display in Bendre's Nageya Hoge and Shivarama Karanth's Garbhagudi ("Sanctum", 1932), which decries the exploitation of society in the name of religion.[19][20]
The period witnessed the coming of age of the novel with the likes of Karanth (Chomana Dudi, 1933), Masti (Subbanna, 1928) and Kuvempu ("Subbamma Heggadathi of Kanur", 1936) leading the charge. Significantly, writers chose to carry on from where the likes of Puttanna, Gulvadi and Kerur had left it earlier at the turn of the century rather than the trend of popular translations set by Venkatachar and Galaganath. Aesthetic concerns subsumed the didactic and a sense of form developed. Devudu Narasimha Shastri distinguished himself with his Antaranga (31) and Mayura (28) - the former being a much acclaimed work which delves into the psychology of the protagonist while the latter is a historical novel tracing the emergence of Kadamba dynasty. Karanth's Marali Mannige (1942) which traces the saga of three generations of a family in whose lives the author delineates the social, cultural and economic developments of over a hundred years is another high point of this period.
Literary criticism which had its beginnings in the first quarter in the writings of Srikantiah, Gundappa and Masti also made significant progress. Srikantiah's Kannada Sahitya Charitre (1947), Gundappa's Sahitya Shakti, Masti's Adikavi Valmiki, Bendre's Sahitya Hagu Vimarshe and Krishna Shastry's Samskrita Nataka are particularly notable. The essay, another borrowing from the west was richly served by A N Murthy Rao (Hagaluganasugalu, 1937), Gorur's humourous Halliya Chitragalu (1930) and Karanth's Hucchu manassina Hattu mukhagalu (1948).
[edit] Late Navodaya
Even as the Navodaya waxed, a new movement of the Pragatishila (progressives) led by the prolific novelist A. N. Krishna Rao (Anakru) gained momentum in the early forties.[21] A left-leaning school, it contended that literature must be an instrument of social revolution and charged the Navodaya as a product of aesthetes, too puritanical to be of any social relevance. This movement drew several established and young writers into its fold and while it produced no poetry or drama of special merit, its contributions to short story and novel was indeed appreciable. Also to its credit, this movement broadened the horizons for the reader as everyday life, rural themes and the common man became subjects which were dealt with extensively in the works produced during this period. The language was less inhibited and made generous use of colloquialism and slang. Anakru himself was a prolific writer of novels but the best works of this school are attributed to T. R. Subba Rao (Ta Ra Su), Basavaraju Kattimani and Niranjana. [22] T. R. Subba Rao (Ta Ra Su) initially wrote short stories in the style, although his talent and consequent popularity was for his novels. His early novels, Purushavatara and Munjavininda Munjavu concerned the problems of the underprivileged, the downtrodden and the outcaste.[23] Best known among his novels—some of whose plots are centred on his native Chitradurga—are Masanada Hoovu ("Flower from a cemetery"), a story about the plight of prostitutes, and historicals such as Durgasthamana and Hamsa Gite ("Swan Song"), a story about a dedicated musician of the late 18th century during annexation of Chitradurga by Tipu sultan.[21]
Marked as its influence may well have been, the Pragatishila wave proved to be short-lived and was already in decline by the close of the fifties. Legends of the previous era continued to produce notable works in the Navodaya style. In poetry, D. R. Bendre's Naku Tanti ("Four Strings", 1964) and Kuvempu's Aniketana (1964) are stand out. Gokak brought out the innate insufficiencies of the more advanced western cultures in Indilla Nale (1965).[24] Navodaya-style novels continued to be successful with such noteworthy works as Shivarama Karanth's Mookajjiya Kanasugalu ("Mookajji's visions", 1968), where the author explores the origins of mans' faith in the mother goddess and the stages of evolution of civilisation. Kuvempu's Malegallali Madumagalu ("The Bride of the Hills", 1967) is about loving relationships that exist in every strata of society.[25]
Masti Venkatesh Iyengar's two classic novels of this era were Channabasavanayaka (1950), which describe the defeat of Bidanur's chief Channabasava Nayaka (on Karnataka's coast) by Haider Ali in the late 18th century, and Chickavirarajendra (1950), which describes the fall of the tiny kingdom of Coorg ruled by King Chikka Virarajendra to the British East India Company.[26] The common theme in both works is the despotism and tyranny of the incumbent native rulers resulting in the intervention of a foreign power, which appeared on the scene to restore order, but had its own imperialistic intentions.[27]
A charismatic young writer, S. L. Bhyrappa made his presence felt from the 1960s with his first novel Dharmasri, although it was his Vamsavriksha ("Family Tree", 1966) that put him in the spotlight as one of Kannada's most popular novelists. It is a story of a respected scholar, Srinivasa Srotri, his family and their long-held values. The protagonist's young and widowed daughter-in-law wishes to re-marry, putting his family tradition at risk.[28] His best was yet to come with Grihabhanga ("Breaking of a Home", 1970), a story of a woman who tries in vain to survive under tragic circumstances. The characters in the story are rustic and often use vulgar language.[29] His other important novel is Parva, a major work in Kannada fiction acclaimed as an admirable attempt at recreating life on the sub-continent during the time of the epic Mahabharata.[30]
[edit] Navya
At the turn of the fifties, even as the Pragatishila merged back into the Navodaya mainstream, a new modernist school of writing called Navya emerged. Though formally inaugurated by V. K. Gokak's with his Navya Kavitegalu ("Modern Poems", 1950), it was Gopalakrishna Adiga who best exemplified the ethos of the movement. Poetry and later the short story became the most effective vehicles of the movement and with the passing of the Gandhian era and its influences, a new era in which to express modern sensibilities had arrived. The Navya writers questioned the time-honoured standards of plot of the Navodaya; life was seen not as a pursuance of already existing values, but as an introspective search for them and were sometimes narrated in stream of consciousness technique. Events and details were increasingly treated metaphorically and the short story grew closer to poetry.[31][32] Gopalakrishna Adiga is considered the father of this expression with his Nadedu Banda Dari ("The Path Traversed", 1952) where he sought inspiration from T. S. Eliot and W. H. Auden. His other well-known poems include Gondalapura ("Pandemonium", 1954) and Bhoota (1959).[33]
G. S. Shivarudrappa made his mark in the Navya period with Mumbai Jataka ("A Horoscope of Bombay", 1966) which takes a closer look at urbanised society in Mumbai.[34] A protégé of Kuvempu, Shivarudrappa gained fame at the peak of the popularity of romantic poems with his Samagma ("Songs of Equanimity", 1951), poems that are distinguished by an idealistic bend. He continued to produce more poems in the same vein, such as Cheluvu Olavu ("Beauty and Truth", 1953) and Devashilpa ("Divine Sculpture", 1959), although in his later poems a gradual shift to social issues with a streak of admiration for god's creation is seen.[35] His critical essay, Anuranana (1980), is about the Vachana poets of the 12th century, their tradition, style and influence on later poets.[35]
K. S. Narasimhaswamy continued to be prominent in this era, writing such landmark poems as Silalate ("The Sculptured Creeper", 1958), Tereda Bagilu ("The Open Door", 1972), Malligeya Male ("Jasmine Garland", 1986), Idadiru Nanna Ninna Simhasanada Mele ("Place me not on your Throne") and Gadiyaradangadiya Munde ("Before the Clock Shop").[36] Among the most well-known of later generation Navya poets are Chandrashekhara Kambar, Chandrashekar Patil, P. Lankesh, and K. S. Nissar Ahmed.[34]
Outstanding playwrights from this period are Girish Karnad, P. Lankesh, Chandrashekhara Kambara and Chandrashekar Patil. Karnad's Tughlaq (1964) portrays violence created by idealism gone astray.[34] Considered an important creation in Kannada theatre, the play depicts the 14th-century Sultan of Delhi, Mohammad Tughlaq in contrasting styles; a tyrannical and whimsical ruler and at the same time, an idealist who sought the best for his subjects.[37] Most plays written by Karnad have either history or mythology as their theme, with a focus on their relevance to modern society.
The most acclaimed classic in the genre of novel was Samaskara by U.R.Anantha Murthy (1965). The novel narrates the search for a new identity and values by the protagonist, a Brahmin, who had sexual intercourse with the untouchable mistress of his heretic adversary.[38] Another notable work is the Swarupa (1966) by Poornachandra Tejaswi. Anantha Murthy's Prasne (1963) contains his best collection of short stories including Ghatashraddha, which describes the tragedy that befell a young pregnant widow, from the point of view of a boy. His collection Mouni (1973) includes the stories Navilugulu ("Peacocks") and Clip Joint.[39]
The Navya movement was not without its critics. The doubts, dilemmas and indecisions in every step of the plot resulted in increasingly sophisticated and complex narrations and this turned off several readers. It was derided as an intellectual exercise of the middle class intelligentsia and in its extreme sophistication, it had lost its touch with realities of life. This led to a gradual waning of the Navya school and was supplanted by emerging waves of Navyottara, the Bandaya (protest) and Dalit schools .[40]
