Secondary education in the United States

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A High School senior (twelfth grade) classroom in Calhan, Colorado, USA.

As part of education in the United States, secondary education usually covers grades 5, 6, or 7 through twelve.

1 Historical Impact of Secondary Education in the United States
2 Teaching secondary
3 Middle schools (Grades 6/7/8 through 8/9) and Junior High schools
4 High school (Grades 9 through 12)
5 See also
6 References
7 External links

[edit] Historical Impact of Secondary Education in the United States

The United States was the world's front-runner in secondary education in the 19th and 20th centuries, being a big reason for the United States to overtake the rest of the world in GDP/Capita in the human capital century or the twentieth century. The economic demand of labor with secondary education skills rose due to the rise of big business, advances in science and technology and large-scale retailing that led to the increase of returns of education. ^[1] It must be noted however, that the quality of education present in the inner cities lags considerably behind that of the norm.

[edit] Teaching secondary

Teachers are certified in one of two areas for secondary education: middle school or high school. These certifications can overlap. In Missouri, for example, middle school certification covers grades 6-8, elementary school certification covers up to grade 5, and high school certification covers grades 9-12. This reflects the wide range of grade combinations of middle schools, Junior Highs, and elementary schools. Alternatively, some states certify teachers in various curricular areas (such as math or history) to teach secondary education.

[edit] Middle schools (Grades 6/7/8 through 8/9) and Junior High schools

Main article: Middle school

Middle schools (Still commonly called by the older names "junior high school" and "intermediate school") are schools that span grades 6 through 8. Schools that span grades 7 through 9 typically are referred to as junior high schools . Both are between primary education/elementary education and high school. Missouri issues its wide ranging and overlapping certification because many school districts, especially around Saint Louis, are historically and currently divided into Elementary, Middle School, Junior High, and High School. In these districts Middle Schools range grades 5-6th (in some cases 4th grade is included), with Junior High running 7-8th, and in some cases 9th , grades. More rural districts offer an all-inclusive elementary school K-6. Some very poor rural districts only have one school building in the district, as that is all the district can afford to build and operate, serving K-12. In Missouri this is possible because the Missouri certification for elementary school allows teachers to teach up to 6'th grade, Middle school from 5'th up to 9'th grade, and the High School certification runs 9'th-12'th grades. The divisions vary widely by state and even by district. Some districts even mix all inclusive elementary schools teaching K-6, but split other schools in the district into Elementary and Middle schools . The general rule being there is no general rule in the US as states and even districts within the state have quite a bit of control over the divisions.

Upon arrival in Middle and/or Junior High School, students begin to enroll in class schedules where they take classes from several teachers in a given day- quite unlike elementary school, where most classes are with the same teacher (generally excepting art, music, and physical education). The classes are usually a set of four core academic classes (English or "language arts," science, mathematics, and history or "social studies") with two to four other classes, either electives or supplementary or remedial academic classes.

In school districts divided into Middle and Junior High Schools often one of the main differences between the two is elective courses. Middle schools typically offer only elective courses for physical education, organized group sports, and for music education (voice,music appreciation, or instrumental music courses). Junior High by contrast often offers 2-4 elective courses, including foreign languages. The other main difference is that the instructors in Middle Schools work closely together as a team, each working within the same grade level of students but teaching different core curriculum classes, whereas Junior High is set up with each academic department operating independently of each other, and teaching all grades that attend the school.

Some students also start taking a foreign language or advanced math and science classes in middle school, such as Spanish, French, German, even Asian languages, Algebra I, Earth Science, and other courses for high school credit. Physical education classes (also called "PE", Kinesiology, or by the older term, "gym") are usually mandatory for various periods.

[edit] High school (Grades 9 through 12)

High school usually runs either from grades 9-12 or from grades 10-12. In the early 20th century, America experienced a "High school movement" as high school enrollment and graduation rates increased steadily. This change in high school enrollment and graduation rates has been linked with the rise of the second industrial revolution and the growth of white collar employment. In the following years, the economic return to a year of education was high as the demand for office clerks and skilled blue-collar workers increased as well. In high school, students obtain much more control of their education, and may choose even their core classes. The control given to students varies from state to state and school to school. In 2001, the US Department of Education reported that there were 26,407 public high schools and 10,693 private schools in the US, although this figure may be inflated somewhat by the Department's definition of secondary schools as "schools with secondary grades," which could include junior high schools with 9th and 10th grades.^[2]

At the turn of the 20th century, it was common for high schools to have entrance examinations which restricted entrance to fewer than 5 percent of the population in preparation for college. Most were expected to be ready for a job or family after junior high school. By mid-century, Comprehensive high schools became common which were designed to give a free education to any student who chose to stay in school for 12 years to get a diploma with a minimal grade point average. The goal became to minimize the number who exited at the mandatory attendance age, which varies by State between 14 and 18 years of age, and become considered to be drop outs, at risk of economic failure. By the 2000s, standards-based education was embraced in most states and federal education policy with the goal of raising standards. It changed the measurement of success to academic achievement, rather than the completion of 12 years of education. By 2006, two-thirds of students lived in states with effective standards requiring passing tests to insure that all graduates had achieved these standards. Many, however, were concerned that this would roll back advances in high school graduation rates of groups at academic risk.

[edit] Basic curricular structure

There is wide variance in curriculum for students in the United States. Unlike their counterparts in other developed nations, many do not begin to specialize into a narrow field of study until their sophomore year of college. This more general curriculum offered in the United States led workers to be far more prepared than their European counterparts in the early 20th century and is viewed as economists as the reason behind the economic success of the "Human-Capital Century".^{[citation needed]} The general education curriculum most likely allowed workers to adapt to changing technologies and were not anchored down as workers of other nations found themselves who took a highly specific form of education.^{[citation needed]} Currently, many high schools in the United States have always offered a choice of vocational or college prep curriculum. Schools that offer vocational programs include a very high level of technical specialization, Eg; auto mechanics or carpentry, with a half-day instruction/approved work program the senior year as the purpose of the program is to prepare students for gainful employment without a college degree. The level of specialization allowed varies depending on both the state and district the school is located in.

A class period is the time allotted for one class session, usually in schools and colleges. A period may vary in time, but is usually 30-90 minutes long.

There is wide variance in the curriculum required each year but, many American high schools require that courses in the areas of English, science, social science, and mathematics be taken by the students every year although other schools merely set the required number of credits and allow the student a great deal of choice as to when the courses will be taken after 10th grade.

Generally, three science courses are required. Biology, chemistry, and physics are standard options. Other science studies include geology, the environment and forensics.

High school mathematics subjects include topics such as algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Advanced study options can include precalculus, calculus and statistics, with or without Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) accreditation.

English/Language classes are usually required for four years of high school although many schools count journalism, public speaking/debate, foreign language, literature, drama, and writing (both technical and creative) classes as English/Language classes.

Required social science classes often include World History, U.S. History and civics. Additional study options can include classes in law (constitutional, criminal or international) economics, sociology, and psychology.

Two years of physical education (usually referred to as "gym," "PE" or "Phys-Ed" by students) is commonly required, although some states and school districts require that all students take Physical Education every semester.

Many states require a "Health" course in which students typically learn anatomy, nutrition, first aid, the basic concepts of sexuality and birth control, and how to make clear decisions concerning illegal drugs, cigarettes, and alcohol. In some places contraception is not allowed to be taught for religious reasons. In some places, the health and physical education class are combined into one class or are offered in alternate semesters.

In some private schools, such as Catholic schools, theology is required before a student graduates.

[edit] Electives

Public high schools offer a wide variety of elective courses, although the availability of such courses depends upon each particular school's financial situation. Some schools and states require students to earn a few credits of classes considered electives, most commonly foreign language and physical education.

Common types of electives include:

Visual arts (drawing, sculpture, painting, photography)
Performing arts (choir, drama, band, orchestra, dance, film)
Vocational education (woodworking, metalworking, automobile repair)
Computer science/business education (word processing, programming, graphic design, computer club, Web design)
Journalism/publishing (school newspaper, yearbook, television production)
Foreign languages: (French, German, Italian, and Spanish are common; Chinese, Japanese, Russian, Greek, Latin, and American Sign Language are less common, though the latter two are gaining increased popularity; however not all states consider sign language a foreign language and can, therefore, hamper students' ability to go to an out-of-state college where they require a foreign language in high school but do not count American Sign Language.)
Family and consumer science/health ("home economics"; nutrition, child development)

Some American high schools offer drivers' education. At some schools, a student can take it during school as a regular course for a credit. At some, however, drivers education courses are only available after school.

[edit] Additional options for gifted/high performing students

Main article: Gifted education

Not all high schools contain the same rigorous coursework as others. Most high and middle schools have classes known as "honors" classes for motivated and gifted students, where the quality of education is usually higher and much tougher.

Some states and cities offer special high school with examinations to admit only the highest performing students, such as Boston Latin School, or San Francisco's Lowell High School. Other high schools cater to the arts. Some schools have been set up for students who do not succeed with normal academic standards. Some have even been created for special social groups such as LGBT students who have been said to have special needs.

If funds are available, a high school may provide Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) courses, which are special forms of honors classes. AP courses are usually taken during the second, third, or fourth years of high school, either as a replacement for a typical third-year course (e.g. taking AP U.S. History as a replacement for standard U.S. History), a refresher of an earlier course (e.g. taking AP Biology in the fourth year after taking Biology as a freshman), or simply as a way to study something interesting during senior year (e.g. AP Comparative Government). IB courses are taken as part of a larger, overall program. IB courses last two years and are typically taken in the final two years of high school. Prior to IB courses, most IB students take pre-IB courses during the sixth through tenth grades. IB courses are taken as a block of seven courses (e.g. a student cannot choose to only take IB chemistry; IB chemistry must be taken as a part of a larger IB curriculum with six other IB courses).

Most postsecondary institutions take AP or IB exam results into consideration in the admissions process. Because AP and IB courses are supposed to be the equivalent of freshman year college courses, postsecondary institutions may grant unit credit which enables students to graduate early. Both public schools and private schools in wealthy neighborhoods are able to provide many more AP and IB course options than impoverished inner-city high schools, and this difference is seen as a major cause of the differing outcomes for their graduates.

Also, in states with well-developed community college systems, there are often mechanisms by which gifted students may seek permission from their school district to attend community college courses full-time during the summer, and during weekends and evenings during the school year. The units earned this way can often be transferred to one's university, and can facilitate early graduation.

[edit] Graduation examinations

Main article: High school graduation examination

Under the education reform movement started in the early 1990s by many state legislatures and the federal government, about two-thirds of the nation's public high school students are required to pass a rigorous graduation exam, usually at the 10th grade level, though no new states had adopted a new requirement in 2006, according to the Center on Education Policy^[3]. This requirement has been an object of controversy when states have started to withhold diplomas, and the right to attend commencement exercises if a student does not meet the standards set by the state. This movement was inspired by examinations in other nations, however a key difference is that most other nations use tests to sort students between academic and vocational schools at different levels. Most American high schools are comprehensive high schools which enroll all students in a local area, regardless of ability or vocational/college track.

The Business Roundtable has supported the goal of standards-based education to ensure that all students meet one single world-class standard that will insure success in all careers and college. However, education progressives such as Gary Orfield of Harvard University and Fairtest, along with advocates of traditional education question whether such a goal is practical or realistic given the wide range of student ability. The fairness of penalizing disadvantaged students who typically fail at rates 2 to 4 times the rates of the best performing groups has been called into question by many in the education community.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

^ The Human-Capital Century and American Leadership:Virtues of the Past by Claudia Goldin
^ Digest of Education Statistics 2001. National Center for Education Statistics.
^ "A 'kickback' against graduation exams, USA Today Aug 17, 2006 6D