Hellenistic civilization
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- This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age; for the historical aspects see Hellenistic Period.
Hellenistic civilization was the zenith of Greek influence in the ancient world. After the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great, Greek culture was spread to Asia, in addition to the Greek colonists who settled in and helped administer the new lands. But more than that, the Hellenistic culture represents the fusion of the Greek world with that of the Near Eastern cultures.[1]
The Hellenistic Period is characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization which established Greek cities and Kingdoms in Asia and Africa.[2] Those new cities were composed of Greek colonists who came from different parts of the Greek world, and not from a specific "mother city" (metropolis) as before.[2] The main cultural centers expanded from mainland Greece, to Pergamon, Rhodes, as well as to new Greek colonies such as Antioch and Alexandria. This mixture of Greek-speakers gave birth to a common Attic-based dialect, known as Hellenistic Greek, which came to absorb and replace all idioms of the Greek language.
The term Hellenistic was derived from Ἕλλην Héllēn, the Greeks' traditional self-described ethnic name. It was established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to refer to the spreading of Greek culture and colonization over the non-Greek lands that were conquered by Alexander the Great in the 4th century BC.
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[edit] Alexander's conquests
Alexander's conquest of the Persian Empire has long been seen by scholars to have opened the floodgates for the spread of Greek culture. The foundation of cities in particular has been seen as Alexander's desire to spread Greek culture across the Empire. Arrian explicitly says that a city founded in Bactria was "meant to civilise the natives". However, these cities also provided garrisons for unstable areas and allowed any soldiers unfit for service to settle.
Alexander attempted to create a unified ruling class of Persians and Greeks, bound by marriage ties. He used both Greeks and Persians in positions of power, although he depended more on Greeks in unstable positions, and also replaced many Persian satraps in a purge after his return from India. He also tried to mix the two cultures, adopting elements of the Persian court (such as a version of the royal robes and some of the court ceremony and attendants) and also attempting to insist on the practice of proskynesis for his Greek subjects. This is probably an attempt to equalise the two races in their behavior towards Alexander as Great King, but it was bitterly resented by the Macedonians, as the Greek custom was reserved solely for the gods. Alexander also unified the army, placing Persian soldiers (some trained in the Macedonian way of fighting and some in their original styles) in the Macedonian ranks.
After Alexander's death in 323, the Empire was split into satraps under his generals. Although most of Alexander's cultural changes were rejected by the Successor kings, other less definite policies were continued. The founding of cities was a major part of the Successors' struggle for control of any particular region, and the independence of the Greek cities was a political right often fought for (although equally often used for political purposes rather than ideologically). The Successors used the existing systems of government within their individual satrapies, but often placed Greeks in the top levels of power. The spread of the Greek language also increased, often being used in tandem with the native language for administrative purposes.
It is debated whether or not Alexander did have a desire to spread Greek culture throughout the known world, but as so much is unknown about Alexander's motives, we cannot really be sure what his aims were. Alexander's invasion opened up the Persian Empire and allowed an influx of settlers from the Greek world into a new area, but the influence of this was often exaggerated in light of the later influence of various cities, particularly Alexandria.
[edit] Culture
The city of Pergamon became a major centre of book production, possessing a library of some 200,000 volumes, second only to the Library of Alexandria.[1] Athens retained its position as the most prestigious seat of higher education, especially in the domains of philosophy and rhetoric, with considerable libraries in her possession.[1] The island of Rhodes boasted a famous finishing school for politics and diplomacy. Famous alumni of Athens and Rhodes were the Romans Cicero and Mark Antony respectively.[1] Alexandria was arguably the second most important centre of Greek learning, boasting a Great Library with 700,000 volumes and a Small Library with 42,800.[1] Antioch as well was founded as a metropolis and centre of Greek learning which retained its status into the Christian era.[1] Seleucia replaced Babylon as the metropolis of the lower Tigris
There were four main Kingdoms claimed by the Diadochi. These kingdoms maintained Macedonian and Greek rule over the native populations, and while they allowed the flourishing of native culture and religion, it mixed with Greek culture. This is the period in which Hellenization is seen to have had greatest influence.
The spread of Greek culture throughout the Near East owed much to the development of cities. Settlements such as Ai-Khanoum, situated on trade routes, allowed cultures to mix and spread. The identification of local gods with similar Greek deities facilitated the building of Greek-style temples, and the Greek culture in the cities also meant that buildings such as gymnasium became common. Many cities maintained their autonomy while under the nominal rule of the local king or satrap, and often had Greek-style institutions. Greek dedications, statues, architecture and inscriptions have all been found. However, local cultures were not replaced, and often mixed to create a new culture.
The spread of Greek language allowed Greek literature to spread throughout the former Persian Empire. The development of the Alexander Romance (mainly in Egypt) owes much to Greek theater as well as other diverse styles of story. The Library at Alexandria, set up by Ptolemy I Soter, became a center for learning and was copied by various other monarchs. An example that shows the diverse spread of Greek theater is Plutarch's story of Crassus' end, in which his head is taken to the Parthian court and used as a prop in a showing of The Bacchae. Theaters have also been found: for example, in Ai-Khanoum on the edge of Bactria, the theater has 35 rows - larger than the theater in Babylon.
The spread of Greek influence and language is also shown through Ancient Greek coinage. Portraits became more realistic, and the obverse of the coin was often used to display a propaganda image, commemorating an event or displaying the image of a favored god. The use of Greek-style portraits and Greek language continued into the Parthian period, even as the use of Greek was in decline.
[edit] Notes
[edit] References
- Tarn, William Woodthorpe; G. T. Griffith (1963). Hellenistic Civilisation, 3rd ed. rev., Cleveland: World Publishing Co..
- Austin, M M (1981). The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
