Grebo language
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The name Grebo is used to refer to a language group or subgroup within the larger Kru language group of Niger-Congo languages in West Africa, or to certain of its constituent speech varieties, and spoken by members of the Grebo ethnic group or its various subgroups.
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[edit] What is the Grebo language?
Since the first group contacted by European explorers and Americo-Liberian colonists reaching the area of Cape Palmas were the Seaside Grebo, or Glebo,[1] their speech came to be known simply as Grebo. In the absence of other qualification, the term Grebo language will refer simply to the Glebo speech variety.
However, as will be seen from the discussion below, considerable ambiguity and imprecision continue to exist with respect to the use of the term Grebo; it is not always clear precisely which variety it is intended to denote, or, if it is being used as a group term, what is to be included in the group. The root of this imprecision grows from several factors:
- The incompleteness of the data; and
- Lack of rigor in the classification methodology; and
- The fact that the speech area involved is a language continuum.
[edit] The ISO 630-3 draft proposal classification of Grebo
The Grebo language group is comprised of a community of speakers of speech varieties covering an extensive language continuum punctuated by a collection of cultural centers of gravity, usually town clusters. While the affinity of these varieties is apparent, the internal structure of a classification is often difficult to delineate with any degree of precision.
The ISO 639-3 draft proposal, based on work of its registration authority SIL in its publication, Ethnologue, presents a classification differing somewhat from that established by Greenberg, [2] avoiding the disputed assignment of the Kru family to the Kwa group, dispensing with the putative superfamily Congo-Kordofanian, and employing the intermediate levels Atlantic-Congo and Volta-Congo. The thirty-nine (39) languages of the Kru family are then subdivided into five (5) branches, including Western Kru[6] with twenty-three (23) languages, which latter branch is then further subdivided into four sub-branches, of which one is the sub-branch called Grebo[3]
Niger-Congo-->Atlantic-Congo-->Volta-Congo-->Kru-->Western-->Grebo
It is noteworthy that this classification is specifically characterized as being genetic, and is presented as a "Language Family Tree" by Ethnologue. However, Ethnologue also stipulates that language identities "must be operationally defined" using "social, cultural, or political factors" depending on one's purpose.[4]. In other words, sociolinguistic criteria may be employed, as well as genetic ones. The result may thus be something slightly different from a pedigree.
[edit] The "sub-branch" Grebo
Ethnologue proceeds to sub-classify the Grebo sub-branch as consisting of nine (9) languages, each "language" consisting of one or more "dialects." It presents the classification as the "Linguistic Lineage" of the individual languages, although here, again, factors other than phylogenetic relationship are in evidence.[5]
"...judgments regarding when two varieties are considered to be the same or different languages are based on a number of factors, including linguistic similarity, intelligibility, a common literature, the views of speakers concerning the relationship between language and identity, and other factors....Some of the distinctions made on this basis may not be considered appropriate by some users or for certain applications. These basic criteria are thought to best fit the intended range of applications, however."
It further states,[6]
"Dialects are quite distinct....Ethnocentric attitudes are strong between subgroups."
Most obvious in the range of applications alluded to are literacy and translation. Ethnologue expressly states that among the sociolinguistic factors is the desirablity of minimizing the amount of variety at the lower levels to facilitate these applications. For example, in the discussion of Barclayville Grebo, a proposal to unify two different languages is discussed:[7]
"Dialects are quite distinct. Many phonological differences with Jabo, which would make literacy difficult if they were combined....
Obviously, having this applied linguistic goal will introduce a systematic bias in favor of reducing the number of entities at the lowest level.
The elements within the Grebo sub-branch, together with their ISO 639-3 identifiers are as follows:
Grebo sub-branch (9 languages)
- Glio-Oubi (1 language in Liberia)
- Glio-Oubi oub (1 dialect)
- Ivorian (3 languages in Côte d'Ivoire)
- Liberian (5 languages)
[edit] The "macrolanguage" Grebo
In addition to this "genetic" classification, Ethnologue innovates a construct which it calls a macrolanguage, which would constitute a taxon in a sociolinguistic taxonomy[8] The specific criteria enumerated make it clear that a "macrolanguage" covers approximately the same range of meanings as either a Dachsprache or an Ausbausprache.
"In various parts of the world, there are clusters of closely-related language varieties that...can be considered individual languages, yet in certain usage contexts a single language identity for all is needed. In various parts of the world, there are clusters of closely-related language varieties that...can be considered individual languages, yet in certain usage contexts a single language identity for all is needed....the individual languages that correspond to a macrolanguage must be very closely related, and there must be some domain in which only a single language identity is recognized."
For example, the sociolinguistic criteria that in "some [i.e. any] context" it may function, or be desired to function as a "single language entity," leads, to the construct Chinese macrolanguage, ISO 630-3 code zho (formerly [chi]), which includes Mandarin and twelve (12) other mutually unintelligible languages, because they share the same writing system. In theoretical linguistics one would never refer to the Chinese language (because there are many of them); yet perhaps in applied linguistics, or in international diplomacy, one might.
Similarly, ISO 639-3 identifier grb is applied to the Grebo macrolanguage.
| "Grebo" macrolanguage | |
|---|---|
| Identifier: | grb |
| Name: | Grebo |
| Status: | Active |
| Code sets: | 639-2 and 639-3 |
| Scope: | Macrolanguage |
| Type: | Living |
The individual languages within this Grebo, together with their ISO 639-3 identifiers, are as follows:
Grebo (macrolanguage) (5 languages in Liberia)
- Barclayville Grebo gry (2 dialects)
- Central Grebo grv (5 dialects)
- Gboloo Grebo gec (5 dialects)
- Northern Grebo gbo (9 dialects)
- Southern Grebo grj (4 dialects)
It is worth noting that the Grebo macrolanguage[9] contains exactly the same list of five(5) languages as the Liberian Grebo Western Kru sub-branch. Thus, as a genetic taxon, it would:
- Be redundant with the Liberian Grebo Western Kru sub-branch; and
- Would conflict at a different level with the Grebo Western Kru sub-family.[3]
[edit] Ambiguity
The ambiguity created is such that any of the twenty-five (25) or more "dialects" in the group is likely to be called (a variety of) Grebo. As an example of the confusion which may arise as a result of using Grebo in this way, consider the following case>
In discussing "Barclayville Grebo...(Wedebo Grebo)," Ethnologue specifies:[7]
"Wedebo, Kplebo. A dialect cluster. Dialects are quite distinct. Many phonological differences with Jabo, which would make literacy difficult if they were combined....They identify with Klao, but understand Grebo better. There are strong ethnocentric attitudes between subgroups."
Here we are told that speakers of Barclayville Grebo understand Grebo better than they do Klao. It is unclear whether Grebo refers to the nearby Jabo dialect of Southern Grebo or to the dominant Glebo (Seaside Grebo dialect of Southern Grebo), or to some other variety Grebo (Kplebo, i.e. Kplio?).
One may note, in fact, that the term Grebo may refer to any of the following:
- The single speech variety Seaside Grebo (Glebo)
- Any of the ad-hoc "literary Grebo" standards, e.g. "E Je" Grebo
- The ISO 639-2 language grb Grebo
- The ISO 639-3 macrolanguage grb Grebo
- Any speech variety belonging to the above macrolanguage, e.g. the "Nyabo dialect" of Grebo
- The ISO 639-3 sub-branch Grebo, id 89958, parent of the Liberian taxon 89968
- Any speech variety belonging to the above sub-branch, e.g. Grebo language "Ivory Coast Tepo Krumen"
[edit] Multilingualism
A degree of bilingualism / bidialectalism is normal in such a context, but so is the commonly observed thrust for autonomy. Nevertheless, factors such as exogamy and the needs of commerce foster intercommunication strategies. This makes the degree of interintelligibility of the varieties seem less than if they were considered in isolation.
Diglossia (extended or not), often with Liberian (Pidgin) English provides an addition dimension to the complexity described above.
[edit] References
- ^ Classified as a dialect of Southern Grebo by ISO 639-3.
- ^ Greenberg, 1966
- ^ a b Subid 89962 denotes the Grebo sub-branch of the Western Kru branch of the Kru family[1].
- ^ Ethnologue, "Introduction"[2].
- ^ ISO 639-3 Scope of denotation
- ^ Southern Grebo, code grj[3].
- ^ a b Barclayville Grebo[4]
- ^ ISO definition at [5].
- ^ Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedgrb
[edit] Bibliography
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr., editor. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International, 2005. Online version: [7].
- Innes, Gordon. 1966. An introduction to Grebo. London: Luzac.
- Innes, Gordon. 1967. A Grebo-English dictionary. (West African Language Monographs, 6) London: Cambridge University Press.
- Ingemann, Frances, and John Duitsman. "A Survey of Grebo Dialects in Liberia," Liberian Studies Journal, 7(2):121-131, 1976.
- Greenberg, Joseph H., The Languages of Africa. Indiana Univ. Press, 1966).
- Hasselbring, Sue and Eric Johnson. A sociolinguistic survey of the Grebo language area of Liberia. SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2002-074, 2002. Online version: [8].
- Payne, John. 1867. A Dictionary of the Grebo Language. Philadelphia: King and Baird.
[edit] External links
- US Navy map of Maryland in Africa, 1853. [9]
