Kitajska
Iz Wikipedije, proste enciklopedije
- Glej članek Ljudska republika Kitajska za podatke o državi na tem geografskem območju.
- Glej članek Republika Kitajska za podatke o ostanku stare države na otoku Tajvan.
| Kitajska |
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| Splošni podatki |
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Kitajska · Geografija in podnebje · Kultura · Demografija · Jeziki · Pisava · Religija · Šport · Izumi · Znanost in tehnologija · Medicina |
| Zgodovina Kitajske |
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Zgodovina Kitajske · Časovni trak · Zgodovinski vpliv Kitajske · Prazgodovina · Dinastije · Moderna Kitajska |
| Vsi članki o Kitajski |
Kitajska (tradicionalno: Zhōngguó (stara kitajščina: 中國, poenostavljena kitajščina: 中国)) je kulturno in geografsko območje ene najstarejših civilizacij ter naroda Kitajcev. Območje se je po zadnji kitajski državljanski vojni razdelilo na Ljudsko republiko obsegajočo celinski del, Hong Kong in Macao, ter tradicionalno Kitajsko obsegajočo na otok Tajvan in druge otoke (glej politični status Tajvana).
Kitajska civilizacija je najstarejša neprekinjena civilizacija, ki ima dolgo zgodovino pisave in več pomembneih odkritij, kot so papir, kompas, smodnik in tisk.
Vsebina |
[uredi] Imenovanje
Kitajska je v mandarinščini najpogosteje imenovana Zhongguo. Prvi zlog zhōng (中) pomeni »osrednji«, medtem ko guó (国 oz. 國) pomeni »država«. Pojem so sprva prevedli krščanski misjonarji kot »Srednje kraljestvo«. V strarem veku se je ime navezovalo na »Osredje države« vzdolž doline Rumene reke.
Slovenščina in večina drugih zahodnih jezikov uporablja različne izpeljanke besede Kitajska (Kina, China,...) in predpone "Sino-" ter "Sin-". Te oblike vrjetno izvirajo iz dinastija Čin, ki je prva združila celotno narodno ozemlje Kitajcev[1].
[uredi] Zgodovina
Prve neolitske kulture so se na Kitajskem pojavile že v 3. tisočletju pr. n. št. Vasi teh kultur so postopoma prerasle v mesta z močno razslojenim prebivalstvom in v prvi polovici drugega tisočletja pr. n. št. se je na Kitajskem razvila civilizacija. Prvo državo so vodili kralji iz vladarske rodbine Shang. Uvedli so upravo s stalnim uradništvom in stalno vojsko za obrambo pred ljudstvi s severa.
Vladarska rodbina Zhou je leta 771 pr. n. št. pregnala vladarsko rodbino Shang. Oblikovala se je fevdalna družba, saj je plemstvo za služenje v vojski in upravi od kralja v dar dobilo kos zemlje. Zemljo so obdelovali kmetje, ki so fevdalcem plačevali davek, opravljali namakalna dela in služili v vojski. Odnose v družbi so utrdili z izdajo zakonika Zhou-li.
Po tisočletni dinastijski obliki vladavine je Kitajska 1. januarja 1912, s koncem zadnje dinastije Qing, postala republika. Eden izmed vidnejših predstavnikov revolucionarnih idej je bil Sun Yat-sen. Med drugo svetovno vojno je na Kitajskem divjala državljanska voja, po kateri je oblast leta 1949 prevzela komunistična partija Kitajske z Maom Zedungom na čelu.
Celinska Kitajska se je preimenovala v Ljudsko republiko, ki danes obsega celinski del, Hong Kong in Macao, privrženci demokratičnega sistema pa so prebežali na Tajvan, ki obsegajočo otok Tajvan in druge otoke (glej politični status Tajvana).
[uredi] Ozemlje
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Ta članek (oz. del besedila) je treba prevesti. Če v nekaj tednih ne bo preveden v slovenščino, ga bomo delno ali v celoti predlagali za izbris. |
[uredi] Historical political divisions
Top-level political divisions of China have altered as administrations changed. Top levels included circuits and provinces. Below that, there have been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, and counties. Recent divisions also include prefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns and townships.
Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as China proper. Various dynasties also expanded into peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, and Tibet. The Manchu-established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into China. China proper is generally thought to be bounded by the Great Wall and the edge of the Tibetan Plateau. Manchuria and Inner Mongolia are found to the north of the Great Wall of China, and the boundary between them can either be taken as the present border between Inner Mongolia and the northeast Chinese provinces, or the more historic border of the World War II-era puppet state of Manchukuo. Xinjiang's borders correspond to today's administrative Xinjiang. Historic Tibet occupies all of the Tibetan Plateau. China is traditionally divided into the boundary being the Huai River and Qinling Mountains.
[uredi] Geography and climate
China ranges from mostly plateaus and mountains in the west to lower lands in the east. Principal rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze (central), the Huang He (Yellow river, north-central), and the Amur (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River, Mekong River, and Brahmaputra), with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific Ocean.
In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges. In the central-east are the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Huang He and Yangtze River. Most of China's arable lands lie along these rivers; they were the centers of China's major ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the Pearl River, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. Yunnan Province is considered a part of the Greater Mekong Subregion, which also includes Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam[2].
In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, and the Himalayas, containing Earth's highest point, Mount Everest. The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert, which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan, which separate modern China from Burma, Laos and Vietnam.
The Paleozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basaltic plateaus.
The climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing Beijing) has summer daytime temperatures of more than 30 degrees Celsius and winters of Arctic severity. The central zone (containing Shanghai) has a temperate continental climate with very hot summers and cold winters. The southern zone (containing Guangzhou) has a subtropical climate with very hot summers and mild winters.
Due to a prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China.[3] Dust has blown to southern China and Taiwan, and has even reached the West Coast of the United States. Water, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries.
- Glej tudi: Environment of China
[uredi] Society
[uredi] Kultura
Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial China's history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for entry into the imperial bureaucracy. China's traditional values were derived from various versions of Confucianism and conservatism. A number of more authoritarian strains of thought have also been influential, such as Legalism. There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the Song Dynasty Neo-Confucians believed Legalism departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of New Confucians (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".[4]
With the rise of Western economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected China's cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and Western cultures. In essence, the history of 20th century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.
- Glej tudi: Chinese law, Chinese philosophy in Confucianism
[uredi] Arts, scholarship, and literature
Chinese characters have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese history. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant, from Oracle bones to Qing edicts. This literary emphasis affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, e.g. the view that calligraphy was a higher art form than painting or drama. Manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist) were handwritten by ink brush. Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions.
Chinese literature has a long past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, the I Ching or "Book of Changes" dates to around 1000 BCE. A flourishing of philosophy during the Warring States Period produced such noteworthy works as Confucius's Analects and Laozi's Tao Te Ching. (See also the Chinese classics.) Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with Sima Qian's seminal Records of the Historian. The Tang Dynasty witnessed a poetic flowering, while the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Printmaking in the form of movable type was developed during the Song Dynasty. Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well. The Song Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, such as Su Song's Xin Yixiang Fayao and Shen Kuo's Dream Pool Essays.
For centuries, economic and social advancement in China could be provided by high performance on the imperial examinations. This led to a meritocracy, although it was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position.
Chinese philosophers, writers, and poets were highly respected, and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.
The Chinese invented numerous musical instruments, such as the zheng (zither with movable bridges), qin (bridgeless zither), sheng (pandean pipe or free reed), xiao (flute) and adopted and developed others such the erhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute) and pipa (plucked lute), many of which have later spread throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia, particularly to Japan, Korea and Vietnam.
- Glej tudi: Chinese art, Chinese painting, Chinese paper art, Chinese calligraphy, Chinese poetry, Cinema of China in Music of China
[uredi] Prebivalstvo
Hundreds of ethnic groups have existed in China throughout its history. The largest ethnic group in China by far is the Han. This group is diverse in itself and can be divided into smaller ethnic groups that share some traits.
Over the last three millennia, many previously distinct ethnic groups in China have been Sinicized into a Han identity, which over time dramatically expanded the size of the Han population. However, these assimilations were usually incomplete and vestiges of indigenous language and culture often are still retained in different regions of China. Because of this, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions, though still identifying as Han. Several ethnicities have also dramatically shaped Han language and culture, e.g. the Manchurian clothing called the qipao became the new "Chinese" fashion after the 17th century, replacing earlier Han styles of clothing such as the Hanfu. The term Chinese nation (Zhonghua Minzu) is usually used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality that transcends ethnic divisions.
[uredi] Jeziki
29 kitajskih narečij spada v družino Sino-tibetanskih jezikov. Najpogosteje govorjena narečja so mandarinščina, ki ga govori 70% populacije, Wu (Šangalščina[5]), kantonščina, Yue, Min, Xiang, Gan in Hakka. Ne sintske jezike govorijo različne etične skupine; mongolščina, tibetanščina, turščina in korjščina.[6]
Klasična kitajščina je bil glavna pisava do srede 20. stoletja, ko so jo komunisti poenostavili.
[uredi] Religija
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Ta članek (oz. del besedila) je treba prevesti. Če v nekaj tednih ne bo preveden v slovenščino, ga bomo delno ali v celoti predlagali za izbris. |
The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China until the overthrow of the last dynasty is a panentheism system, centering on the worship of "Heaven" as an omnipotent force. This faith system pre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism or the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity. It has features of a monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. "Heaven" as a supernatural force was variously referred to as Shangdi (literally "Emperor Above"). Worship of Heaven includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Altar of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. Manifestation of the powers of Heaven include weather and natural disasters. Although it gradually diminished in popular belief after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among others, some of its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions of China.
Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and is traditionally traced to the composition of Lao Zi's Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Its Virtues) or to seminal works by Zhang Daoling. The philosophy of Taoism is centered on "the way"; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of China. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideas include Feng Shui, Sun Tzu's Art of War, and acupuncture.
Buddhism was introduced from South and Central Asia during the Han dynasty and became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embraced particularly by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. Mahayana (大乘, Dacheng) is the predominant form of Buddhism practiced in China, where it was largely Sinicized and later exported to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in China include Pure Land (Amidism) and Zen. Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China and the country has the most Buddhist adherents in the world, followed by Japan. Many Chinese, however, identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time.
Ancestor worship is a major religious theme shared among all Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture, Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value filial piety as a top virtue, and the act is a continued display of piety and respect towards departed ancestors. The Chinese generally offer prayers and food for the ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of Joss paper. These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine.
Judaism, Islam and Christianity first arrived in China after the 7th century AD during the Tang Dynasty. Islam was later spread by merchants and craftsmen as trade routes improved along the Silk Road, while Christianity began to make significant inroads in China after the 16th century through Jesuit and later protestant missionaries. In the first half of the 20th century, many Jews arrived in Shanghai and Hong Kong during those cities' periods of economic expansion and also sought refuge from the Holocaust in Europe. Shanghai was particularly notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was the only port in the world then to accept them without an entry visa.
[uredi] Sports and recreation
Many historians believe that football (soccer) originated in China, where a form of the sport may have appeared around 1000 CE.[7] Other popular sports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, and more recently, golf. Basketball is now popular among young people in crowded urban centers. In Taiwan, baseball is more popular due to American and Japanese influences.
There are also many traditional sports. Chinese dragon boat racing occurs during the Duan Wu festival. In Inner Mongolia, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In Tibet, archery and equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals.[8]
China has become a sports power, especially in Asia. It has finished first in medal counts in each of the Asian Games since 1982,[9] and in the top four in medal counts in each of the Summer Olympic Games since 1992.[10] The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, will be held in Beijing.
Physical fitness is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice Tai Chi Chuan and qigong in parks.
Board games such as International Chess, Go (Weiqi), and Xiangqi (Chinese chess) are also common and have organized formal competitions.
[uredi] Science and technology
Among the scientific accomplishments of ancient China were paper (not papyrus), printing, the early loadstone and magnetic compass, gunpowder, early seismological detectors, matches, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the escapement mechanism for clocks, the water-powered armillary sphere, the chain drive, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow and the cannon. Chinese astronomers were among the first to record observations of a supernova. Chinese mathematics evolved independently of Greek mathematics and is therefore of great interest in the history of mathematics.
China's science and technology fell behind that of Europe by the 17th Century. Political, social and cultural reasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes, such as the high level equilibrium trap. Since the PRC's market reforms China has become better connected to the global economy and is placing greater emphasis on science and technology.
[uredi] Glej tudi
Slovarske definicije v Wikislovarju
Učbeniki v Wikiknjigah
Navedki v Wikinavedku
Izvorna besedila v Wikiviru
Slike, zvok in animacije v Zbirki
- Zgodovina Kitajske
- Imenovanje Kitajske
- Kitajci
- Kitajska kultura
- Kitajski koledar
- Kitajska kuhinja
[uredi] Reference
- ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 4. izdaja, Boston in New York, Houghton-Mifflin (2000) pravi, da je beseda China (Kitajska) izpeljanka iz Qin + Sino.
- ^ Greater Mekong Subregion Atlas of the Environment published by Asian Development Bank
- ^ "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm". BBC news. Accessed 17 April, 2006.
- ^ Bary, Theodore de. "Constructive Engagement with Asian Values". Columbia University.
- ^ Šangalščina je skupno ime za različne dialekte jezika Wu. Zahodni jezikoslovci uporabljajo pojem "Šangalščina" kot posplošitev Wu dialktov.
- ^ Jeziki. 2005. GOV.cn. URL accessed 26 May 2007.
- ^ Origins of the Great Game. 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Accessed 23 April 2006.
- ^ Qinfa, Ye. Sports History of China. About.com. Retrieved April 21, 2006.
- ^ http://www.dohaasiangames.org/en/asian_games_2006/history.html
- ^ http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/index_uk.asp
[uredi] Zunanje povezave
(v angleščini)
- Opombe o Kitajski
- Atlas Kitajske
- Spletni portal z novicami
- Kitajska v 21. stoletju
- Dr Rivka Shpak-Lissak: Zgodovinsko ozadje Kitajske
